1 Therefore, since through God's mercy we have this ministry, we do not lose heart. 2 Rather, we have renounced secret and shameful ways; we do not use deception, nor do we distort the word of God. On the contrary, by setting forth the truth plainly we commend ourselves to every man's conscience in the sight of God. 3 And even if our gospel is veiled, it is veiled to those who are perishing. 4 The god of this age has blinded the minds of unbelievers, so that they cannot see the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God. 5 For we do not preach ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, and ourselves as your servants for Jesus' sake. 6 For God, who said, "Let light shine out of darkness," made his light shine in our hearts to give us the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ.
7 But we have this treasure in jars of clay to show that this all-surpassing power is from God and not from us. 8 We are hard pressed on every side, but not crushed; perplexed, but not in despair; 9 persecuted, but not abandoned; struck down, but not destroyed. 10 We always carry around in our body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be revealed in our body. 11 For we who are alive are always being given over to death for Jesus' sake, so that his life may be revealed in our mortal body. 12 So then, death is at work in us, but life is at work in you.
13 It is written: "I believed; therefore I have spoken." With that same spirit of faith we also believe and therefore speak, 14 because we know that the one who raised the Lord Jesus from the dead will also raise us with Jesus and present us with you in his presence. 15 All this is for your benefit, so that the grace that is reaching more and more people may cause thanksgiving to overflow to the glory of God.
16 Therefore we do not lose heart. Though outwardly we are wasting away, yet inwardly we are being renewed day by day. 17 For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all. 18 So we fix our eyes not on what is seen, but on what is unseen. For what is seen is temporary, but what is unseen is eternal.
Treasure Hidden In a Clay Jar
2 Corinthians 4:5-12
Sermon
by King Duncan
A few years ago, a brother and a sister in west London found an old vase while cleaning out their parents’ home. They thought it might have some value. Subsequently they hired Bainbridge, an auction house, to sell it. They discovered it was valued at nearly $2 million. But, get this: after 30 minutes of spirited bidding at the auction, this vase, which turned out to be an 18th century Qing [pron. cheeng] Dynasty vase went to a buyer from China for more than 69 million dollars, the most ever paid at auction for a Chinese antiquity.
“They had no idea what they had,” said a Bainbridge spokeswoman. When the final bid was official, “they had to go out of the room and have a breath of fresh air.” (1)
Well, I should think so! Maybe some of us should spend some time cleaning our attic this afternoon. An old vase worth more than $69,000,000. Wow! Some people do get lucky sometimes.
It’s like a couple in Lander, Wyoming who went to the city dump to dispose of some larger yard trash.As they were ditching their junk, their eye was caught by a rather ornate but worn old wooden bed headboard. The wife suggested they take it home and try to restore it.
As they were loading this rather heavy and bulky item onto their truck, a cap on one of the posts came off and out began to pour dozens of old gold coins from the late 1800’s. Both legs of this old headboard had been hollowed out and filled with a fortune in gold coins. (2)
I know what you’re thinking: why can’t something like that happen to me? But I love such stories. Let me tell one more story. For those of you who are feeling a little envious by now let me assure you that this story is the antithesis of these two preceding stories: A woman had problems with her hearing and decided it was time to buy hearing aids. They cost over $3,000 each and were not covered by her insurance policy, so it was a big decision.
The first night she went out with her new hearing aids, she went to a restaurant with her husband and friends and made an interesting discovery: Unlike the human ear, which can filter out table and kitchen noises from conversation, these hearing aids just made everything louder. Halfway through dinner, she removed one of the aids from her ear, set it down by her plate, and continued the conversation as best she could.
Later, she looked for the hearing aid. It was gone. She panicked. She told her friends, and they immediately began to search the area for the missing, and expensive, hearing device.
Her husband never moved. He just sat there. She asked him: “What did you do now?”
He replied: “I thought it was an olive.”
Now, that’s more like the kind of luck you and I usually have. I can’t even imagine what they went through to reclaim that treasure--or if they even tried.
Everybody loves a good story of a successful treasure hunt. Such stories give us hope that someday we will be that fortunate too.
Today, I want to invite you on the greatest treasure hunt of all. It is a hunt for the treasure that surpasses all others. People don’t recognize that it is the most desirable treasure of all because it is hidden in an innocuous and somewhat fragile clay jar. Why is it hidden in a clay jar and not displayed in, for example, a jewelry case? Well, there’s a reason. See if you can figure it out as you listen to our lesson for today from Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians.
Paul writes, “For what we preach is not ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, and ourselves as your servants for Jesus’ sake. For God, who said, ‘Let light shine out of darkness,’ made his light shine in our hearts to give us the light of the knowledge of God’s glory displayed in the face of Christ.
“But we have this treasure in jars of clay to show that this all-surpassing power is from God and not from us . . .”
O.K., what is this treasure Paul is describing? It is “the light of the knowledge of God’s glory displayed in the face of Christ.” Jesus called it the pearl of great price. It is so valuable that when a merchant finds it he sells everything else that he owns and goes and buys that pearl. This is to say that there is a treasure worth far more than the crown jewels of England or any other treasure on this earth, and it can be the possession of the humblest believer. And where does that light shine? It shines “in our hearts.”
Now, what is the jar of clay? It’s whoever believes in Christ.
Any of you who have ever owned anything made of clay know that it’s not a costly material. It’s nothing like a vessel made of ivory, glass, marble, brass or costly wood. It’s not particularly strong. In fact, it is somewhat fragile and vulnerable. Why was it chosen then? Paul writes, “We have this treasure in jars of clay to show that this all-surpassing power is from God and not from us . . .”
So let’s break down this lesson and make it practical for our lives.
In the first place, we need to note that the treasure about which Paul speaks does not lie somewhere “out there.”
Many of us are obsessed with finding meaning and purpose outside of ourselves. A better job, a nicer neighborhood, a trimmer body, travel abroad, designer clothes, a prestigious automobile, a beach front condo. The list goes on and on. We buy self-help books, get in on the latest fad, take a peek at our horoscope, wait to meet Mr. Right, believing all the time that somewhere, sometime, somehow, if we position ourselves just right for a moment, we will be fulfilled.
When Paul says we have this treasure in jars of clay, he is saying that meaning and purpose and, yes, happiness do not reside “out there.” Either we have them within our own hearts or we do not have them at all.
There was an entertaining motion picture back in the 1990s titled Cool Runnings. It was a comedy loosely based on the true story of the Jamaica national bobsled team's debut in competition during the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. John Candy played a former American gold medalist who becomes a coach to the Jamaican team and is very popular with the team.
Later in the story, however, it is revealed that Candy’s character had disgraced himself by breaking Olympic rules while seeking his two gold medals. He was disqualified from further competition for cheating and retired in disgrace to Jamaica, where he was leading an impoverished life as a bookie when he was recruited to coach the Jamaican team. His past sins almost result in the Jamaican team being disqualified as well.
One of the Jamaican bobsledders could not understand why anyone who had already won a gold medal would cheat in the first place. Finally he nervously asked the coach to explain.
“I had to win,” said Candy. “I learned something. If you are not happy without a gold medal you won’t be happy with it.” (3)
What an accurate statement that is. As someone has said, happiness is an inside job. If you do not have meaning and purpose and happiness and peace on the inside, it doesn’t matter what you have on the outside. Wealth and fame will satisfy some of your cravings but they will not give you a feeling of contentment and satisfaction. As someone else has said, “it’s not want you own; it’s what owns you that counts.”
More than 250 years ago Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote an essay that still rings true today. In his essay Rousseau contrasted the well-being of the so-called hunter-gatherer of history’s early days to the well-being of workers of his own time. Rousseau stated that “it was the hunter-gatherer and not, as everyone had grown used to believing, the modern worker who was the better off.” Rousseau’s argument hung on a radical thesis. Being truly wealthy, he suggested, does not require having many things; rather, it requires having what one longs for. Wealth is not an absolute. It is relative to desire.
“Every time we yearn for something we cannot afford,” he wrote, “we grow poorer, whatever our resources. And every time we feel satisfied with what we have, we can be counted as rich, however little we may actually possess. There are two ways to make a person richer,” reasoned Rousseau: “give him more money or curb his desires. Modern societies have done the former spectacularly well, but by continuously whetting appetites, they have at the same time managed to negate a share of their success.” (4)
In other words, happiness and contentment are an inside job. Paul says that the greatest treasure is within our own hearts.
Here is the second thing we need to see. If we have this treasure within that Paul speaks of, we can handle whatever comes to us from without. It is easy to see that we can’t find happiness “out there.” But what happens if misfortune finds us? Listen again to the words of St. Paul as he describes the effect of this treasure: “We are hard pressed on every side, but not crushed; perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not abandoned; struck down, but not destroyed . . .” Life can be cruel to us, Paul is saying to us, but if we have this treasure, adversity cannot conquer us.
We are told that success in living comes from making the right choices. But what about those things that happen to us that are not of our choosing? We need something to sustain us when things get rough on the outside--something that St. Paul had.
Some of you may be familiar with noted best-selling author, pastor, and radio speaker David Jeremiah. He has written a book titled A Bend in the Road. The book tells how in the midst of a growing ministry, he was diagnosed with cancer. In 1994 and again in 1998, Jeremiah was diagnosed with lymphoma. In 1999, a nodule was surgically removed from his neck and he underwent stem cell transplant therapy.
In his book Jeremiah writes about the physical and emotional toll of this treatment. He speaks candidly of his battle with pain, nausea, and deep depression. At the present time his cancer is in remission but the doctors have told him that there are no guarantees. The cancer could come back, or it might not, but there is no way to be sure.
“The book’s title comes from his observation that sooner or later we will all come to a ‘bend in the road’ that we didn’t expect, couldn’t have foreseen, didn’t want, didn’t ask for, and can’t postpone. We’ve got our life lined up and things are going in the right direction, and then one day everything changes and suddenly we have come to a bend in the road. Now life is moving in a different (and unwanted) direction.” (5)
If we do not have sufficient resources within at such a time, we are lost. St. Paul knew about times like that. “We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed; we are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed . . .” Paul had sufficient resources to overcome an array of difficulties. He had that treasure--the light of the knowledge of God’s glory displayed in the face of Christ--that would allow him to always be a conqueror.
This brings us to the last thing to be said. First of all, meaning and purpose are not something we find “out there.” Either you have it within or you do not. Secondly, this is a treasure that will help us keep going when the going is difficult. Finally, we need to understand that this treasure is not to be found by looking “in” so much as it is in looking “up.”
When we say that happiness comes from within, we do not mean that the way to personal contentment is to begin by looking within yourself. The path begins not by looking within but by looking up to the One who is the source of life. The path to inner peace is not simply a matter of getting in touch with our feelings but getting in touch with our Heavenly Father. The answer is not meditation but an encounter with the Master of the universe. True happiness is not a matter of “good vibrations” but soul searching prayer. It comes by knowing that the emptiness you feel within can be filled by Someone who loved you before you were ever born.
William Frey, a retired Episcopal bishop from Colorado, once told a story from his younger years about a time when he volunteered to read to a degree student named John who was blind. One day Frey asked John how he happened to lose his sight.
“A chemical explosion,” John said, “at the age of thirteen.”
“How did that make you feel?” Frey asked him.
“Life was over. I felt helpless. I hated God,” John responded. “For the first six months I did nothing to improve my lot in life. I would eat all my meals alone in my room. One day my father entered my room and said, ‘John, winter’s coming and the storm windows need to be up. That’s your job. I want those hung by the time I get back this evening or else!’ Then he turned, walked out of the room and slammed the door. I got so angry,” said John. “I thought, ‘Who does he think I am? I’m blind!’ I was so angry I decided to do it--[that is, put up the windows]. I felt my way to the garage, found the windows, located the necessary tools, found the ladder, all the while muttering under my breath, ‘I’ll show them. I’ll fall, then they’ll have a blind and paralyzed son!’”
John continued, “I got the windows up.” Then he finishes his testimony with these powerful and helpful words, “I found out later that never at any moment was my father more than four or five feet away from my side.” (6)
How do we find this treasure that surpasses all other treasures in this world? First of all, we recognize that there is nothing in this world on the outside of us that can give us what we truly crave. Secondly, we understand that one thing that makes this treasure so valuable is that, though we are fragile jars of clay, if we have this treasure within we can cope with any adverse condition which life gives us. And finally we recognize that to have this treasure we look not inwardly or outwardly. We look to God, a Father who is always with us regardless of our circ*mstances or our worthiness. “We have this treasure in jars of clay,” write St. Paul, “to show that this all-surpassing power is from God and not from us . . .”
1. The Week, November 26, 2010 p. 6. Illustration by Jim L. Wilson and Rodger Russell. Cited at https://soundfaith.com/sermons/116488-siblings-find-vase-worth-millions-while-cleaning-parents'-home.
2. JohannNeethling, https://www.sermoncentral.com/sermons/gods-goodies-in-cracked-pots-johann-neethling-sermon-on-grace-61561.
3. Randall Bergsma. Cited in Edward K. Rowell, 1001 Quotes, Illustrations, and Humorous Stories (Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 2008), p. 177.
4. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1754), Alain De Botton. Cited in Status Anxiety (Vintage) (Kindle Edition).
5. Dr. Ray Pritchard, http://www.keepbelieving.com/sermon/christmas-hope/.
6. Larry Briney, More Grace for the Daily Grind (Xulon Press).
Dynamic Preaching, Collected Sermons, by King Duncan
Because Paul has been entrusted with the new covenant ministry, he does not “lose heart” (4:1, 16). The word translated “lose heart” (NIV) can mean to “become discouraged,” but in this context probably means to “act cowardly or timidly.” To “not lose heart” would therefore mean to have courage and confidence and boldness in ministry (cf. 3:12). Such boldness means he doesn’t have to use deception or distort God’s word (4:2). Instead, he states the truth plainly with a clear conscience before God (4:2). Not all accept Paul’s message, however, because the …
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
1 Therefore, since through God's mercy we have this ministry, we do not lose heart. 2 Rather, we have renounced secret and shameful ways; we do not use deception, nor do we distort the word of God. On the contrary, by setting forth the truth plainly we commend ourselves to every man's conscience in the sight of God. 3 And even if our gospel is veiled, it is veiled to those who are perishing. 4 The god of this age has blinded the minds of unbelievers, so that they cannot see the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God. 5 For we do not preach ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, and ourselves as your servants for Jesus' sake. 6 For God, who said, "Let light shine out of darkness," made his light shine in our hearts to give us the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ.
7 But we have this treasure in jars of clay to show that this all-surpassing power is from God and not from us. 8 We are hard pressed on every side, but not crushed; perplexed, but not in despair; 9 persecuted, but not abandoned; struck down, but not destroyed. 10 We always carry around in our body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be revealed in our body. 11 For we who are alive are always being given over to death for Jesus' sake, so that his life may be revealed in our mortal body. 12 So then, death is at work in us, but life is at work in you.
13 It is written: "I believed; therefore I have spoken." With that same spirit of faith we also believe and therefore speak, 14 because we know that the one who raised the Lord Jesus from the dead will also raise us with Jesus and present us with you in his presence. 15 All this is for your benefit, so that the grace that is reaching more and more people may cause thanksgiving to overflow to the glory of God.
16 Therefore we do not lose heart. Though outwardly we are wasting away, yet inwardly we are being renewed day by day. 17 For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs them all. 18 So we fix our eyes not on what is seen, but on what is unseen. For what is seen is temporary, but what is unseen is eternal.
And so, transformed “through God’s mercy,” Paul has been given the ministry of bearing the message that transforms its recipients. Because he has been sent from God, his proclamation can embrace neither “deception” nor the distortion of anything that God has said in the past (4:2). Thus, where the message remains obscure, one may be sure that such obscurity is not a result of the proclamation but a result of the work of the enemy, the god of this age (cf. John 12:31), who has blinded the minds of those who persist in unbelief to the light of the gospel. Neither can the proclamation promote its bearer but only its subject, Jesus Christ, the Lord who is the very image of God (and therefore the true and second Adam, the beginning of a new creation [see 2 Cor. 5:17]). Only through Christ can the full light of God’s glory become known.
A change of metaphor signals the beginning of a new thought, though it is closely related to all that Paul has just said. For the light of the gospel may also be described as that which has been placed within the minds and hearts of its human bearers as a treasure placed within “jars of clay” (cf. Matt. 13:44). The power that transforms belongs to the treasure, not to its receptacle. But the receptacle, though remaining frail, is itself measurably changed by its contents.
Abandoning metaphorical language, Paul proceeds now to describe the change that has come about since the placement of the treasure within him. It is not a change in the conditions or circ*mstances of his life (for pressure and perplexity continue to be a part of his experience, together with persecution and physical beatings that have come more recently, since the beginning of his ministry). Instead it is a change in the attitude and fortitude of the apostle, which has enabled him to bear suffering and even to triumph in the midst of it.
For the power of the treasure is clearly “revealed” through the weakness and frailty of its mortal receptacle (4:10–11). So even while death is at work on Paul, “life is at work” through him for the “benefit” of those to whom he ministers, and this provides Paul with compensation for the cost of his ministry (4:12, 15). Moreover, a sure confidence provides Paul with further compensation. It is the confidence that even should death prevail, “the one who raised the Lord Jesus from the dead will also raise us with Jesus and present us with you in his presence” (4:14). Such compensatory thoughts, kept ever more securely in view because of the inexorable renewal of his inner self, prevent Paul from despair and provide him with a new perspective on his present afflictions.
Paul, of course, has spoken to the Corinthians before about the hope of resurrection, but now he sees an opportunity to develop his thoughts further. So, in a passage that has given rise to a wealth of interpretation, Paul proceeds to reveal what he expects for himself beyond death. He employs a metaphorical description of the body as an earthly tent (5:1), in terms of his own experience (Acts 18:3) and the cultural background of his audience (the physical body having been described as a “tent” in Greek literature since the time of Plato and Pythagoras).
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
In 2:14–4:6, the first step in his defense of the legitimacy of his apostolic claim, Paul repeatedly refers to heavenly realities he has known as an apostle: He has entered the heavenly throne room of God; he speaks in the presence of Christ; and he has seen the glory of God in the face of Christ (cf. 2:14, 17; 4:6). The emphasis in the previous section has thus been on the glory of Paul’s apostolic ministry. The problem is that Paul’s body does not manifest the glory of God in a tangible way. According to Jewish tradition, however, one who ascends to the merkabah is bodily transformed in the process into the likeness of the divine glory. Moses himself, to whom Paul has already alluded, had to veil his face because the Israelites could not bear the resplendent glory visible there (cf. 3:7, 13; Philo, On the Life of Moses 2.70; Pesiq. Rab. 10:6; Zohar 1.31b). Therefore, the question is this: If Paul has ascended to the throne-chariot of God in the highest heaven, and if greater glory attends Paul’s ministry than even that of Moses, why does Paul not have to wear a veil as Moses did (cf. 2 Cor. 3:13; 5:12)? According to Merkabah Rabbah, the face of one who ascends to the divine throne-chariot should shine (cf. Schäfer, 705, 706). Furthermore, according to Hekhatot Rabbati, the one who ascends to the divine throne-chariot becomes invincible and greater than all other humans (Schäfer, 84–85; cf. G. A. Wewers). So why does Paul’s suffering and dying body look so unimpressive (cf. 10:10)? Why does Paul have a “thorn in the flesh” (12:7)? Why, in short, is Paul’s glory so different from the glory of Moses?
In answer to these questions, which probably stem from Paul’s opponents and resonate in the Corinthian church, Paul emphasizes in 4:7–5:15 that a simultaneous process of destruction and reconstruction is currently taking place in his body, a process that will reach its completion only at the Parousia, when his mortal body will be transformed into immortality, and Christ will judge him on his merkabah throne for what he has done in the body. Paul thus contrasts his earthly suffering as an apostle to the heavenly prospects that he still earnestly awaits. Yet, while the verdict on Paul must await the final judgment, there is evidence even now of God’s power working through Paul in his mortal body (4:7). Ultimately, however, Paul rejects the opponents’ physical criterion for assessing the legitimacy of his apostleship and seeks instead to establish valid criteria (5:11–15). Hence, the present section forms a solid, second step in Paul’s defense strategy.
4:7 Having shown the transcendent power and glory of his apostleship in 2:14–4:6, Paul is careful not to claim personal credit for these things. Paul wants to avoid the appearance of self-commendation (3:1) and claims instead that his competence is from God (3:5). This treasure probably refers to the revelation of the glory of God in the face of Christ through which Paul received his apostolic commission (4:6). Paul has this revelatory treasure in jars of clay. It is difficult to know exactly why Paul has chosen this metaphor for his physical body (cf. b. Taʿan. 7a; Acts 9:15). In the ancient world, the most common vessels were earthenware. They were used for storing and transporting (of water, oil, grain, and olives), cooking, eating, drinking, and presenting offerings. They are found in every domestic excavation site and in graves, where they accompanied the deceased with provisions. Pottery vessels became the main type of containers in most Near Eastern cultures. Yet the vessels were fragile and their usual life spans were probably a few years at the most. Therefore, when Paul refers to his body as a clay jar, he may be regarding himself, on one level, as quite ordinary and transitory (cf. Lam. 4:2; Song Rab. 1:19: “Just as water does not keep well in a vessel of silver or gold but in the commonest of vessels, so the Torah resides only in one who makes himself like a vessel of earthenware”).
Paul’s metaphor, however, has a deeper significance: His body is a “jar of clay” because “the Lord God formed man (ʾādām) from the dust of the ground (ʾadāmāh)” (Gen. 2:7; cf. Ps. 103:14; Isa. 29:16; 45:9; Sir. 33:10, 13; 1QH 1.15; 3.21; 1QS 11.21–22). The Hebrew verb yāṣar here is most often used of a potter who “forms” a vessel out of clay (cf. Isa. 29:16; 41:25; Jer. 18:4, 6; 1 Chron. 4:23; Lam. 4:2). In the account of the curse, Genesis goes on to underscore the relationship of human beings to the soil: “You are dust, and to dust you shall return” (Gen. 3:19; cf. Ps. 104:29; Job 10:9; 17:16; 21:26; 34:15; Eccl. 3:20; cf. Schäfer, 973). Therefore, when Paul refers to his body as a clay jar, he regards himself as having a mortal human body.
Verse 7b goes on to give the purpose for which the revelatory treasure is contained in the clay jar of Paul’s mortal body. In the previous context, Paul has been careful not to claim any credit for the surpassing glory and power of his apostolic ministry (cf. 3:6, 10). In fact, the apostle strictly denies any sufficiency in and of himself (3:5). If his body fails to emanate this glory and power, that merely underscores the point, for while Paul considers himself to possess all-surpassing power, this power is not inherently Paul’s own; it is from God (v. 7b; cf. 6:7; 12:9; 12:12).
4:8–18 In this section, Paul elaborates on his “earthenware” apostolic experience by a series of antithetic statements designed to show that, despite the apostle’s suffering and dying, God is the source of power in his ministry. By the power of the death and resurrection of Jesus, God enables Paul to persevere in the midst of persecution; he makes Paul’s ministry of suffering to redound to the benefit of the Corinthians; and he gives Paul confidence in the future resurrection of the dead.
4:8–9 The section begins with a series of antitheses that express God’s providential preservation of Paul despite severe persecution. The Corinthians are well informed of Paul’s sufferings: In 1 Corinthians 4:11–13 he lists his apostolic trials and tribulations, and in 2 Corinthians 1:8–11 he describes his nearly fatal experience in Asia, which made him despair even of life. Yet, as we have seen, God comforts Paul in “all our troubles” (1:4), in the sense that he rescues the apostle from all his trials. Since the power of God is at work in his life, Paul can withstand persecution without being destroyed. Acts even records an incident in which Paul was stoned and left for dead, but he walked away from the scene (Acts 14:19–20). In all of these trials, Paul is not abandoned, that is, not forsaken by God (cf. in LXX Pss. 26:9; 36:25, 28, 33; 37:22; 70:9, 18; 118:8; 139:9). God always preserves him from destruction and death.
4:10–11 Paul explains the paradoxical result of his perseverance in persecution by the power of God. Paul considers all of the deprivations, efforts, and persecutions that he incurs in the course of his apostolic ministry as participation in the sufferings of Christ, including the cruciform death of Jesus itself (cf. 1:5). As the apostle states in Philippians 3:10–11, he shares in Christ’s sufferings and the power of his resurrection, “becoming like him in his death, and so, somehow, to attain to the resurrection from the dead.” According to Galatians 3:1, before the Galatians’ very eyes Jesus Christ was clearly portrayed as crucified. In all likelihood, this means that, through seeing the apostle and his sufferings, the Galatians saw in human form a revelation of the death of Jesus. This seems to be confirmed in Galatians 6:17, where Paul states that he bears on his body “the marks of Jesus,” referring to the wounds and scars that he received in the service of Christ. Paradoxically, however, Paul’s suffering shows the resurrection life of Jesus in his body. Sharing in Christ’s sufferings here and now is a prerequisite for sharing in his resurrection glory in the future (Rom. 8:17). In the present, however, Paul is constantly being delivered from demise, which is a revelation of the resurrection life of Jesus at work in Paul’s mortal body (cf. 1:9–10; 4:14). Hence, a simultaneous process of death and resurrection is currently taking place in Paul’s body.
4:12 There is another paradoxical result of Paul’s perseverance in persecution by the power of God: So then, death is at work in us, but life is at work in you. As Paul has already explained in the thanksgiving of 1:3–11, the persecution that he endures is for the benefit of the Corinthians. Hence Paul’s suffering is a special suffering related particularly to his apostolic ministry, since it mediates benefits to the churches that he founds. Among these benefits is the life-giving Spirit (cf. 3:6).
4:13–15 In this section, Paul elaborates on his hope of and confidence in the resurrection of the dead, again stressing the benefit to the Corinthians.
4:13 The apostle begins in verse 13 with a citation from Psalm 116:10 (115:1 LXX) in order to allude to the context of the psalm. The psalmist, who identifies himself as the Lord’s “servant,” speaks of his great humiliation (v. 1) and refers to the death of the Lord’s pious ones (v. 6). Evidently, the psalmist has been delivered from great persecution (v. 7), and he now, in accordance with vows given during the trial, seeks to render praise to God before the people in the house of the Lord (vv. 9–10). The psalmist believed that God could deliver him, and therefore he has spoken. Having been delivered from many perilous situations in the past and expecting to be delivered in a full and final way in the future, Paul likewise speaks in that same spirit as this psalm. We have already noted Paul’s use of psalmic form and content in the opening thanksgiving (cf. 2 Cor. 1:3–11).
4:14 Paul gives the reason he can speak with the same spirit of faith as Psalm 116:10: despite his present plight, Paul has an indomitable confidence in the resurrection of the dead, or, more particularly, in “the God who raises the dead” (2 Cor. 1:9–11). He describes this confidence by means of the early Christ creed, “God raised Jesus” (cf. Rom. 10:9; 1 Thess. 1:10; Acts 3:15; the participial construction used here is also found in Rom. 4:24; 8:11; Gal. 1:1). At the Parousia, the apostle will stand together with the Corinthians before God. This ties together with themes that Paul developed in the previous section (2:14–4:6), that Paul has often stood in the presence of God (cf. 2:14, 17; 4:6), and that believers are being transformed into the likeness of the Lord (3:18). Paul’s confidence and hope is that believers are just one step behind the risen Lord, who is “the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep” (1 Cor. 15:20). In this sense, God will raise Paul up with Jesus. The christological context of the believer’s experience is quite pronounced (cf. 2 Cor. 4:10–11).
4:15 The reason (gar, untranslated NIV) that God will raise up Paul is ultimately doxological. On the one hand, Paul’s deliverance is for the benefit of the Corinthians (2 Cor. 1:3–7). On the other hand, Paul’s final deliverance is expected to result in overflowing thanksgiving to God (cf. 1:11). The culmination of the Pauline mission is that Jews and Gentiles would glorify God together for his mercy (cf. Rom. 15:5–13). In this way, the goal of the Pauline mission coincides with the general message of Isaiah.
4:16–18 In this section Paul draws a conclusion (Therefore, dio) from what he has said previously about his sharing in both the death and life of Jesus (vv. 10–12, 13–15), using the same antithetical style as previously. In the process, Paul reiterates what he has said in verse 1 (we do not lose heart), thus bringing closure to chapter 4.
4:16 The apostle begins in verse 16 with the conclusion itself and the substantiation for it. Paul contrasts the ongoing destructive and reconstructive processes that are simultaneously at work in his “outer man” and in his “inner man.” On the one hand, Paul’s suffering and sharing in the death of Jesus have him wasting away outwardly, that is, physically. In the context of degenerative processes, the term is used of rust’s eating into iron, of moths’ eating clothes, and of the bodies of starving persons. Paul has already referred in verse 7 to his body as a “jar of clay,” alluding to the original composition of human beings from the dust of the ground (Gen. 2:7) and to their subjugation to death and decomposition to dust after the curse (Gen. 3:19). The creation, too, has been subjected to futility and decay (Rom. 8:20). The mortal material out of which humans are made is the problem. Hence, in Romans 7:24 we find the anguished cry (perhaps of Adam after the fall), “Who will rescue me from this body of death?”
On the other hand, Paul’s sharing in the resurrection of Jesus causes him continually to be renewed. Paul has already described the transformation of believers (3:18; cf. Col. 3:9–10). In 2 Corinthians 5:17, he declares: “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation; the old has gone, the new has come!” Hence the renewal that Paul envisions is not just a matter of outer versus inner, but also of past versus present and future. The consummation of the renewal process takes place at the Parousia, when the bodies of believers will be redeemed (Rom. 8:23), that is, resurrected and conformed to the likeness of the Son of God (v. 29), and the whole creation “will be liberated from its bondage to decay and brought into the glorious freedom of the sons of God” (v. 21).
Paul wants to stress against his opponents that the real test of his apostleship is not external glory, which is observably deficient at present, but rather the process of internal transformation (see further on 5:12). Given these values, the apostle does not lose heart, despite his hardships and their negative effect on his body.
4:17 Paul gives a second reason he does not lose heart: the weight of his current tribulation is relatively small compared to the immeasurably greater weight of glory that still awaits him. Paul thereby makes a play on the corresponding Hebrew word for glory (kābôd), which literally means “weight, heaviness.” Although Paul’s temporary and earthly suffering is actually quite excruciating in the sense of sharing in Christ’s sufferings (cf. 1:8–11), this suffering is light. It pales in comparison with the future eternal glory that he expects as a result of the present process of transformation. For Paul, sharing in Christ’s sufferings is the prerequisite to sharing in Christ’s glory (Rom. 8:17). In fact, suffering is a normal part of the Christian experience (Phil. 1:29), and especially so for the apostle. Paul already enjoys a substantial measure of glory through his apostleship (2 Cor. 3:7–18). The process of transformation into the visible likeness of the Lord has already begun (3:18). However, there is even more glory in store for him in the future, when he is given a resurrection body in the likeness of the glorious resurrection body of Jesus Christ himself (cf. 1 Cor. 15:43; Phil. 3:21).
4:18 Paul states here the result of his future expectation of glory on his present perspective. He does not lose heart (v. 16a) because he has his sights set on as yet intangible heavenly realities rather than on the tangible earthly vicissitudes and physical frailty that currently mark his outwardly being (“the external man” of v. 16). Paul has already had a foretaste of the coming glory through his experience of the merkabah (cf. 12:1–7). Looking beyond the transitory moment, Paul knows that the transformation taking place within him is eternal.
Additional Notes
4:7–5:15 On the bodily transfromation into the likeness of the divine glory cf. C. R. A. Morray-Jones, “Transformational Mysticism in the Apocalyptic-Merkabah Tradition,” JJS 43 (1992), pp. 1–31; M. Himmelfarb, “Revelation and Rapture: The Transformation of the Visionary in the Ascent Apocalypses,” in Mysteries and Revelations: Apocalyptic Studies since the Uppsala Colloquium (ed. John J. Collins and James H. Charlesworth; JSPSup 9; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991), pp. 79–90.
4:7 On treasure, Col. 2:3 refers to Christ as the one “in whom are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (cf. 1 En. 46:3; Schäfer, 77 [“all the treasuries of wisdom” were opened to Moses on Sinai, including various aspects of the seventy languages of the seventy nations]). “This treasure” has also been understood as an allusion back to the “gospel” (cf. Thrall, Second Corinthians, vol. 1, pp. 321–22) or to the divine glory lost by Adam and being restored through the righteous suffering of Christ, the last Adam (C. Marvin Pate, Adam Christology as the Exegetical and Theological Substructure of 2 Corinthians 4:7–5:21 [Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1991], pp. 77–106). For Pate, therefore, 2 Cor. 4:16–5:4a is a “midrashic type of interpretation of Gen. 1–3” (ibid., p. 126). On this, see the review by Scott Hafemann, JBL 113 (1994), pp. 346–49.
On jars of clay see also 1QH 3.23–25; Apoc. Mos. 31:4.
According to Herodotus (3.96), Darius used to store (thēsaurizei) the tribute he had collected from the whole inhabited world by melting it down and pouring it into large earthen wine-jars (pithous keraminous), which served as molds; when the vessels were full, he would break them away and use the resulting ingots to mint new coins. Hence, the jars were merely of utilitarian value and had to be broken in order to complete their function.
If, as we have argued, 2 Cor. 2:14–4:6 is based on Israel’s salvation history and reflects the nation’s sin, exile, and restoration, then it may be significant to note that in Jewish tradition Israel’s story is seen as a direct parallel to Adam’s, so that “Israel’s sin and exile are a reiteration of Adam’s sin and exile” (Paul Morris, “Exiled from Eden: Jewish Interpretations of Genesis,” in A Walk in the Garden: Biblical, Iconographical and Literary Images of Eden [ed. Paul Morris and Deborah Sawyer; JSOTSup 136; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992], pp. 117–66 [p. 123]). Cf. Pesiq. Rab Kah. 15:1:1 (cf. also Gen. Rab. 3:9; 19:9).
On the verb yasar, see B. Otzen, “yasar,” TDOT, vol. 6, pp. 257–65.
4:8–9 On the tribulation catalogues in Rom. 8:35; 1 Cor. 4:10–13; 2 Cor. 4:8–9; 6:4–10; 11:23–33; 12:10; and Phil. 4:12, see Niels Willert, “The Catalogues of Hardships in the Pauline Correspondence: Background and Function,” in The New Testament and Hellenistic Judaism (ed. Peder Borgen and Søren Giversen; Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1997), pp. 217–43.
The phrase that the NIV translates on every side (en panti) is literally translated “in everything” or “in every way,” and may apply to all four of the following antitheses. Compare the pleonastic use of pas (“all, every”) in 1:3, 4; 6:4; 7:5, 11, 16.
How can we explain the apparent tension between our text (perplexed, but not in despair) and 1:8, where the apostle states that he “despaired even of life” during his tribulation in Asia? Perhaps our passage reflects Paul’s normal response to various kinds of affliction, whereas the severity of the situation in Asia caused a momentary lapse.
4:10–11 On the death of Jesus, see J. Lambrecht, “The Nekrōsis of Jesus: Ministry and Suffering in 2 Cor. 4:7–15,” in Apôtre Paul. Personnalité, style et conception du ministère (ed. A. Vanhoye; BETL 73; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1986), pp. 120–43.
Although for the most part v. 11 merely explains v. 10 in other words, it does add the idea that Paul is being given over to death. The same verb is used of Jesus’ being “given over” (cf. Rom. 4:25; 8:32; 1 Cor. 11:23; Gal. 2:20).
4:12 Steven J. Kraftchick argues that in 2 Corinthians the death and resurrection of Jesus is a “generative metaphor” (“Death in Us, Life in You: The Apostolic Medium,” in Hay, ed., Pauline Theology, pp. 156–81). Specifically, Kraftchick concludes that in 2 Corinthians “the structure by which terms such as death, life, the glory of God, and power are related to one another by the resurrection of Jesus from the dead is transferred by Paul to the terms of his ministry and by extension to the life of the Christian in the present time before the eschaton” (ibid., p. 164). See the response to this proposal by Beverly Roberts Gaventa, “Apostle and Church in 2 Corinthians: A Response to David M. Hay and Steven J. Kraftchick,” in Hay, ed., Pauline Theology, pp. 182–99 (here pp. 187–93).
This is the first explicit OT quote in 2 Corinthians (cf. also 6:2, 16, 17, 18; 8:15; 9:7, 9, 10; 10:17). Cf. D. Moody Smith, “The Pauline Literature,” in It Is Written: Scripture Citing Scripture: Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars (ed. D. A. Carson and H. G. M. Williamson; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 265–91, here p. 275: “In 2 Corinthians Paul’s use of the OT is if anything more incidental, and even casual, than in 1 Corinthians.” As we shall see, however, Scripture is much more fundamental to Paul’s argument than Smith suggests.
4:16 On diaphtheirein, see BAGD, p. 190.
How may we understand the contrast between inwardly and outwardly? H.-P. Rüger (“Hieronymus, die Rabbinen und Paulus. Zur Vorgeschichte des Begriffspaars ‘innerer und äußerer Mensch’,” ZNW 68 [1977] 132–37) suggests that, for the benefit of his readers in Corinth, Paul employs “the inner man” and “the outer man” as Hellenistic substitutes for the Jewish expressions “the good inclination” and “the evil inclination,” respectively. In that case, the renewal of the inner man Paul refers to in 2 Cor. 4:16 is none other than the work of the life-giving Spirit in the heart associated with the new covenant (cf. 3:6; Eph. 3:16). As we have seen on 2 Cor. 3:3, however, the evil inclination is usually understood in rabbinic sources to be at work in the heart. In fact, it is sometimes identified with the heart of stone that will be replaced by a heart of flesh in accordance with Ezek. 36:26 (Lev. Rab. 35:5; Song Rab. 6:26). The possibility that Paul has in view here a Jewish tradition seems to be underscored by his use of the expression day by day (lit., “day and day”), which is apparently a Hebraism meaning “each day” (cf. Esth. 2:11; 3:4 [translated kath’ hekastēn hēmeran in the LXX]; 11QPs. 27.6; 11QTemple 15.1; 17.12). For example, corresponding to the notion that “the evil inclination of a man grows in strength from day to day and seeks to kill him” (b. Sukka 52b) is the idea that in the future the Spirit of God will spread throughout the whole body in accordance with Ezek. 36:27 and not merely through one of the limbs as presently (Gen. Rab. 26:6).
The earliest clear use of the phrase “evil impulse” is found in the “Plea for Deliverance,” a hymnic text from Qumran (11QPsa 19.15–16) dated to the first century A.D. (for possibly earlier Qumran texts, see now Torleif Elgvin, “Admonition Texts from Qumran Cave 4,” in Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet Qumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects [ed. Michael O. Wise, et al.; Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 722; New York: The New York Academy of Sciences, 1994], pp. 179–94 [here 186–87]). Cf. also 2 Esdr. 4:30; 7:48, 92; Sir. 15:14–17.
According to W. D. Davies, Paul seems to connect the evil impulse to the flesh, whereas the rabbis do not (Jewish and Pauline Studies [4th ed.; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984], p. 196). In light of 2 Cor. 4:7, where Paul refers to his body as a “jar of clay,” we may point out the frequent wordplay in rabbinic texts between God as potter (yōser) and the evil inclination (yeser) that he created in humans (cf. b. Ber. 61a; ʿErub. 18a; Exod. Rab. 46:4; Ruth Rab. 3:1).
C. M. Pate argues that the man of 2 Cor. 4:16 is an allusion to Gen. 1:26–28, associated with Ps. 8:5–6, so that the “outer man” refers to the believer’s existence under the decaying mortality inherited from Adam, whereas the “inner man” is the believer’s existence in the new age already inaugurated by Christ as the Last Adam, “an age characterized by the renewal of the image and glory of God in the heart of the believer (cf. 4:16 with 3:18; 4:4, 6)” (Adam Christology, p. 110; cf. p. 112).
4:17 On the use of kabôd in the sense of “weight,” see C. Westermann, “kbd,” TLOT, vol. 2, pp. 590–602, here p. 593.
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by James M. Scott, Baker Publishing Group,
Direct Matches
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
Basic manufacturing material of fine-grained soil mixed with impurities. It is pliable when moist and hardens when baked. It was used for pottery (Lev. 6:28; 11:33; 15:12; Num. 5:17; Jer. 19:1; 32:14; 2Cor. 4:7), building material (Lev. 14:42; Nah. 3:19), molds (1Kings 7:46), sculpture (Dan. 2:33), and writing tablets (Ezek. 4:1). Clay is used metaphorically to illustrate weakness (Job 4:19; 13:12; 27:16) or lowliness of purpose (Lam. 4:2; 2Cor. 4:7; 2Tim. 2:20). The potter and his clay are likened to God and human creation (Job 10:9; 33:6; Isa. 29:16; 45:9; 64:8; Jer. 18:4; Rom. 9:21).
An innate awareness of wrong, with an inclination toward thinking and acting rightly. The OT describes moral awareness as a willingness to obey God’s revealed will (Deut. 30:14; Ps. 1:12; Prov. 1:7). People are not presented as morally perfect, but, to the degree of their knowledge, they are expected to act rightly (Gen. 4:1–16; 1Sam. 25:31). Abimelek, king of Gerar, appeals to ignorance because of Abraham’s deception (Gen. 20:1–7). Job appeals to the purity of his conscience (Job 27:6).
Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.
Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.
In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).
In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).
Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).
In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).
In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).
The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).
In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).
The English word “gospel” translates the Greek word euangelion, which is very important in the NT, being used seventy-six times. The word euangelion (eu= “good,” angelion= “announcement”), in its contemporary use in the Hellenistic world, was not the title of a book but rather a declaration of good news. Euangelion was used in the Roman Empire with reference to significant events in the life of the emperor, who was thought of as a savior with divine status. These events included declarations at the time of his birth, his coming of age, and his accession to the throne. The NT usage of the term can also be traced to the OT (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1), which looked forward to the coming of the Messiah, who would bring a time of salvation. This good news, which is declared in the NT, is that Jesus has fulfilled God’s promises to Israel, and now the way of salvation is open to all.
Grace is the nucleus, the critical core element, of the redemptive and sanctifying work of the triune God detailed throughout the entire canon of Scripture. The variegated expressions of grace are rooted in the person and work of God, so that his graciousness and favor effectively demonstrated in every aspect of the created realm glorify him as they are shared and enjoyed with one another.
The biblical terminology informing an understanding of grace defines it as a gift or a favorable reaction or disposition toward someone. Grace is generosity, thanks, and good will between humans and from God to humans. Divine expressions of grace are loving, merciful, and effective. The biblical texts provide a context for a more robust understanding of divine gift. The overall redemptive-historical context of grace is the desire of the eternal God to bring glory to himself through a grace-based relationship with his creation. The Creator-Redeemer gives grace, and the recipients of grace give him glory.
Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.
Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.
Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.
The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).
It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.
Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.
That humankind has been created in the image of God indicates its unique status above the animals because of a special similarity with God. This status authorizes humankind to rule the earth and requires respect toward people. The particulars of what the phrase “image of God” means have been understood in many ways.
The phrase is rather rare. It first appears in Gen. 1:2627, and the same or similar phrases occur in five more verses (Gen. 5:1, 3; 9:6; 1Cor. 11:7; James 3:9) that refer back to it. The NT also refers to Christ as the image of God and to believers becoming like the image of Christ.
The passages that refer back to Gen. 1:26–27 emphasize honor and respect for human individuals. Humans are to dominate the earth, not one another. They should not kill one another; otherwise they become subject to the death penalty (Gen. 9:6), and they should not curse others but instead treat them with honor (James 3:9). But the motif has no real prominence other than being in the beginning of the Bible. After Gen. 9:6, the OT does not use the phrase “image of God.” The concept of human rule appears (e.g., Ps. 8), but the expression “image of God” is more a subpoint under a larger topic than it is a heading for biblical teaching.
In the NT, Jesus is twice identified by the Greek equivalent to the Hebrew phrase “image of God” (2Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15). Especially in the context of Col. 1:15, the emphasis is on Christ’s deity and so part of a different topic, despite the similar wording. The two verses about believers that refer to the likeness of God and the image of the Creator (Col. 3:10; Eph. 4:24) deal with moral behavior and the sanctification of the believer (cf. Rom. 8:29; 2Cor. 3:18). Although they do not directly refer to Gen. 1, they do address the common metaphor that humankind, by sinning, marred its imaging of God. To be conformed to the image of Christ restores how humanity images God in the world.
God begins his creation with light, which precedes the creation of sun, moon, and stars and throughout Scripture is an unqualified good (Gen. 1:35, 15–18; Exod. 10:23; 13:21). In the ancient world, people rarely traveled at night and usually went to bed soon after sunset. The only light in the home was a small oil lamp set on a stand, which burned expensive olive oil. Light is a biblical synonym for life (Job 3:20; John 8:12). Seeing the light means living (Ps. 49:19; see also Job 33:30). Conversely, darkness is often a symbol of adversity, disaster, and death (Job 30:26; Isa. 8:22; Jer. 23:12; Lam. 3:2).
John, who offers perhaps the most profound meditations on light, claims that God is light (1John 1:5). The predicate appropriates the intrinsic beauty of light, a quality that draws people’s hearts back to the author of beauty. For the apostle, light represents truth and signifies God’s will in opposition to the deception of the world (John 1:9; 12:46). Light stands for purity and signifies God’s holiness as opposed to the unrighteousness of the world (John 3:19–21). Light is where God is, and it radiates from the place of fellowship between God and his creation (John 1:7).
The word “likeness” is used in various contexts. The foundational concept of likeness, however, is found in Gen. 1:26: “Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness.” This announces the high status of humans as the pinnacle of God’s creation (also Gen. 5:12). Genesis 5:3 says that Adam fathered Seth “in his own likeness, in his own image,” employing both words found in 1:26. The precise meaning of this has been much debated. Three things are to be noted. First, the expression “let us,” versus “let there be,” implies a personal aspect. It refers to the human capacity to relate to God in worship and obedience of his word (2Cor. 4:4; Eph. 4:24). Second, the word “likeness” describes human beings as not simply representative of God but representational. Humankind is the visible, corporeal representative of the invisible, bodiless God. Third, being in God’s likeness/image sets human beings apart from everything else that God has made. Humankind’s supremacy and uniqueness are emphasized.
Mercy is a distinguishing characteristic of the nature of God. God is called “the Father of mercies” (2Cor. 1:3 NRSV [NIV: “Father of compassion”]). God is “rich in mercy” (Eph. 2:4; cf. 2Sam. 24:14; Dan. 9:9). God’s mercy was demonstrated in his covenantal faithfulness to his people (1Kings 8:2324; Mic. 7:18–20). God redeemed the oppressed Israelites from slavery under Pharaoh because of his mercy, which was stirred when he heard their groaning and cry for help.
Jesus Christ lived a life full of mercy. He is, in a sense, the bodily manifestation of God’s mercy. Jesus expressed deep mercy whenever he saw the sick and the lost. The writers of the Gospels describe Jesus’ demonstrations of mercy when he healed the blind, the lame, the deaf, the leprous, the demon-possessed, and the dead (Matt. 9:36; 14:14; 20:34; Mark 1:41; 5:19; 6:34; 8:2; Luke 7:13; John 11:33). Jesus especially had compassion on the crowds, who did not have a spiritual leader, and he compared them to “sheep without a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36).
What is the proper response to God’s mercy and compassion? God expects believers to show the same kind of mercy toward other people. One of the best examples is the parable of the unmerciful servant (Matt. 18:23–35).
In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1Tim. 3:113).
The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).
Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.
All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.
It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1Thess. 2:19–20).
The term “Scripture” (graphē) appears fifty-one times in the NT, used in reference to the OT. Sometimes the biblical writers cite a specific OT text as Scripture, while at other times they refer to Scripture in a more comprehensive manner.
In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.
The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.
The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).
The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).
According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).
Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).
The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.
Treasure was stored in the Jerusalem temple and palace (Josh. 6:24) and was collected from the spoils of war (Josh. 6:19), from offerings (2Kings 12:4; Mark 12:41), and from royal gifts (2Kings 12:18; 1Chron. 29:3). The temple treasury contained gold, silver, other metals, and precious stones (1Chron. 29:8). Treasuries also housed written records (Ezra 6:1). Treasure was stored in the small rooms that surrounded the sanctuary (1Chron. 28:12; see also Jer. 38:11) and was guarded by Levites (1Chron. 9:26). Several treasurers are named (1Chron. 9:26; 26:20, 22; 2Chron. 25:24). The Ethiopian eunuch who met Philip was a treasurer in the court of the Kandake (Acts 8:27). The treasury funded repairs to the temple (2Kings 12:7; Ezra 7:20).
Invading kings frequently raided the temple treasury, including Shishak of Egypt (1Kings 14:26), Jehoash of Israel (2Kings 14:14), and finally Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (2Kings 24:13; Dan. 1:2), as foretold by Jeremiah (Jer. 15:13). On other occasions, the kings of Judah drew money from the treasury to make tribute payments to foreign rulers (1Kings 15:18; 2Kings 12:18; 16:8; 18:15). “Treasury” can also refer to a private account (Prov. 8:21).
Jesus taught that his followers should store up their treasures in heaven and not on earth (Matt. 6:1921). Earthly treasures will be destroyed over time or perhaps even stolen. In this vein, he urged the rich young ruler to sell his possessions so he might have “treasure in heaven” (Matt. 19:21).
“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).
The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.
The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).
Direct Matches
Blindness was a common ailment in the ancient world. Somecauses included old age (Gen. 27:1), trauma, or divine punishment(John 9:2). Israel was given special instructions to care for theblind (Lev. 19:14). True love helped the blind (Job 29:15), andmisleading them was a serious violation (Deut. 27:18).
Blindnessconstituted a ritual blemish, but the blind themselves were notrendered “unclean,” though they could not function aspriests (Lev. 21:18). Even blind animals were unfit for sacrifice(Lev. 22:22), a barometer of the people’s hearts that theprophets had to remind them of (Mal. 1:8). According to the TempleScroll, the Qumran sect expanded the biblical qualifications andrefused entrance to any blind person (11Q19 45:12–13). Nowviewed as impurity, blindness in its midst would defile the wholecommunity and dilute the emphasis of the community on “sight”as an eschatological sign (1Q28a 2:3–10; cf. Isa. 29:18; 35:5).Jesus and his disciples’ healing of the blind may have alsobeen a critique against such separatistic practices (cf. Matt.9:27–31; 12:22).
Infigurative language, the Bible frequently describes the spiritualcondition of people in terms of blindness. Isaiah capitalizes on themetaphor of blindness to describe the rebellious and apostate groups:prophets, priests, and rulers who were divinely afflicted withblindness (Isa. 43:8; 56:10; 59:10; cf. Zeph. 1:17). The anthropologyrepresented in the OT posited three “zones” ofinteractive relationship: hands-feet (action), mouth-ears (speech),and heart-eyes (emotion with thought). The zone of heart-eyes relatedto blindness, since the notion of a dark heart emanated through theeyes. This tradition surfaced in Jesus’ teaching (Matt.6:22–23; cf. 1 John 2:9–11).
Jesushighlighted the onset of the messianic age by fulfilling Isaiah’spromise to proclaim “recovery of sight to the blind”(Luke 4:18). Forty-six of fifty-two references to blindness in the NTare Gospel stories of Jesus’ healing. Because Jesus’ministry was one of opening blind eyes (cf. Isa. 42:7, 16, 18),calling the Pharisees “blind guides” was a sharpdescription (Matt. 15:14; 23:16, 24). But on others, Jesus wouldimpose blindness, the very reverse of his mission (John 9:39–41),since he came as the “light of the world” (8:12).Spiritual blindness as applied to unbelievers could be used todescribe the failure or hard-heartedness of some to accept the trueidentity of Jesus Christ. Using similar language, Paul describes thepagan unbelievers: “The god of this age has blinded the mindsof unbelievers, so that they cannot see the light of the gospel thatdisplays the glory of Christ” (2 Cor. 4:4).
Nearsightednessand blindness can also be used to describe believers who have growndull to the truth (2 Pet. 1:9) or tepid in their faith (Rev.3:17). Believers are blind when they fail to grasp their truespiritual condition.
Blindness was a common ailment in the ancient world. Somecauses included old age (Gen. 27:1), trauma, or divine punishment(John 9:2). Israel was given special instructions to care for theblind (Lev. 19:14). True love helped the blind (Job 29:15), andmisleading them was a serious violation (Deut. 27:18).
Blindnessconstituted a ritual blemish, but the blind themselves were notrendered “unclean,” though they could not function aspriests (Lev. 21:18). Even blind animals were unfit for sacrifice(Lev. 22:22), a barometer of the people’s hearts that theprophets had to remind them of (Mal. 1:8). According to the TempleScroll, the Qumran sect expanded the biblical qualifications andrefused entrance to any blind person (11Q19 45:12–13). Nowviewed as impurity, blindness in its midst would defile the wholecommunity and dilute the emphasis of the community on “sight”as an eschatological sign (1Q28a 2:3–10; cf. Isa. 29:18; 35:5).Jesus and his disciples’ healing of the blind may have alsobeen a critique against such separatistic practices (cf. Matt.9:27–31; 12:22).
Infigurative language, the Bible frequently describes the spiritualcondition of people in terms of blindness. Isaiah capitalizes on themetaphor of blindness to describe the rebellious and apostate groups:prophets, priests, and rulers who were divinely afflicted withblindness (Isa. 43:8; 56:10; 59:10; cf. Zeph. 1:17). The anthropologyrepresented in the OT posited three “zones” ofinteractive relationship: hands-feet (action), mouth-ears (speech),and heart-eyes (emotion with thought). The zone of heart-eyes relatedto blindness, since the notion of a dark heart emanated through theeyes. This tradition surfaced in Jesus’ teaching (Matt.6:22–23; cf. 1 John 2:9–11).
Jesushighlighted the onset of the messianic age by fulfilling Isaiah’spromise to proclaim “recovery of sight to the blind”(Luke 4:18). Forty-six of fifty-two references to blindness in the NTare Gospel stories of Jesus’ healing. Because Jesus’ministry was one of opening blind eyes (cf. Isa. 42:7, 16, 18),calling the Pharisees “blind guides” was a sharpdescription (Matt. 15:14; 23:16, 24). But on others, Jesus wouldimpose blindness, the very reverse of his mission (John 9:39–41),since he came as the “light of the world” (8:12).Spiritual blindness as applied to unbelievers could be used todescribe the failure or hard-heartedness of some to accept the trueidentity of Jesus Christ. Using similar language, Paul describes thepagan unbelievers: “The god of this age has blinded the mindsof unbelievers, so that they cannot see the light of the gospel thatdisplays the glory of Christ” (2 Cor. 4:4).
Nearsightednessand blindness can also be used to describe believers who have growndull to the truth (2 Pet. 1:9) or tepid in their faith (Rev.3:17). Believers are blind when they fail to grasp their truespiritual condition.
Basic manufacturing material of fine-grained soil mixed withimpurities. It is pliable when moist and hardens when baked. It wasused for pottery (Lev. 6:28; 11:33; 15:12; Num. 5:17; Jer. 19:1;32:14; 2 Cor. 4:7), building material (Lev. 14:42; Nah. 3:19),molds (1 Kings 7:46), sculpture (Dan. 2:33), and writing tablets(Ezek. 4:1). Clay is used metaphorically to illustrate weakness (Job4:19; 13:12; 27:16) or lowliness of purpose (Lam. 4:2; 2 Cor.4:7; 2 Tim. 2:20). The potter and his clay are likened to Godand human creation (Job 10:9; 33:6; Isa. 29:16; 45:9; 64:8; Jer.18:4; Rom. 9:21).
An innate awareness of wrong, with an inclination toward thinking and acting rightly. The OT describes moral awareness as a willingness to obey God’s revealed will (Deut. 30:14; Ps. 1:1–2; Prov. 1:7). People are not presented as morally perfect, but, to the degree of their knowledge, they are expected to act rightly (Gen. 4:1–16; 1 Sam. 25:31). Abimelek, king of Gerar, appeals to ignorance because of Abraham’s deception (Gen. 20:1–7). Job appeals to the purity of his conscience (Job 27:6).
A fuller revelation of God’s will is given in the Mosaic law. God gives commandments in part to heighten the Israelites’ awareness concerning right and wrong, so that with their obedience they might enjoy a covenant relationship within God’s holy presence (e.g., Deut. 28:1–14). This informed social conscience was intended to curb evil behavior (Gal. 3:19). The author of Judges anticipates the need for the law by complaining that “everyone did as they saw fit” (17:6; 21:25).
However, the biblical narrative also makes room for paradoxical situations and competing values, which complicate moral reasoning (e.g., Gen. 38; Judg. 11:29–40). In the law, God expressly forbids child sacrifice, but he commands Abraham to present his son Isaac as a burnt offering (Gen. 22:1–14). On a rooftop Peter receives a vision in which the Lord commands him to kill and eat unclean animals (Acts 10:1–8). In both cases, God tests faith by commanding the believer to betray personal conscience, to open his heart to a fuller revelation of the divine plan. Even the moral reasoning of God is not always straightforward. God is committed to doing right, but he also weighs decisions with compassion and mercy. Abraham and Moses appeal to God’s character, and they are able to intercede on behalf of sinful people (Gen. 18:22–33; Exod. 32). Jonah even comes to despise this quality of God’s character, which appears to compromise justice (4:1–11).
These tensions anticipate the gospel, which claims that God loves sinners and has provided a means to express mercy toward them without compromising justice (Rom. 3:21–26). Like the Mosaic law, the gospel also provides further revelation into God’s will and therefore a more informed conscience. With citations drawn from throughout the OT, Paul claims that all people suffer from a distorted conscience (Rom. 3:9–20). God has spoken to all people through their conscience, but despite this innate awareness of right and wrong, both Jews, who possess God’s commandments, and non-Jews, who know something about God from nature (creation), have compromised their own ethical stance, so that they have only themselves to blame (1:18–32). This universal inner conflict, emphasized by Jesus and Paul, removes appealing to one’s conscience as a means of justification at the future judgment (Mark 7:1–23; Luke 13:1–5, 22–30). Furthermore, this habitual compromising leads to present self-deception and a skewed perception of the world.
But through repentance and faith in the gospel, returning to God (the Creator), a person’s conscience may be renewed and aligned with the mind and actions of Jesus Christ (Rom. 12:1–2; 1 Cor. 2:16). Despite this restoration, the complexity of moral reasoning is not always overcome. Indeed, living in Christ with others from different cultural backgrounds and values often requires deeper reflection. Paul acknowledges that there can be different perceptions by believers, which can lead to different practices. Eating meat that may have been sacrificed to idols is neutral or wrong depending upon one’s conscience and that of the observer (1 Cor. 8:1–3). He applies the same perspective to Jewish calendar observance and food laws (Rom. 14:1–23; but see Gal. 4:8–11). But the apostle also presumes that personal conscience can grow in knowledge. Ultimately, believers’ consciences should be informed by relating everything to the lordship of Christ (Rom. 2:15; 9:1; 2 Cor. 1:12; 4:2; 5:11), meditating on the goodness of all creation (Titus 1:10–16), and placing the well-being of others before their own (Phil. 2:1–11).
The organ of visual perception. The eye is the lamp of the body, so that someone who has a sound or healthy eye can experience light, but someone with a deficient eye experiences only darkness (Matt. 6:22–23). Bright eyes signify alertness and good health (1Sam. 14:27–29; Ps. 38:10), whereas dim eyes signify poor vision, often from old age (Gen. 27:1; 48:10; 1Sam. 3:2). Blindness may be cured by opening the eyes (Isa. 35:5; John 9:14), although Paul was blind even with his eyes open (Acts 9:8). To lift or raise the eyes is to take a look around or look toward something (Gen. 13:10; 18:2; John 11:41). To turn the eyes from something is to no longer look at it (Ps. 119:37; Song 6:5; Isa. 22:4). Something hidden from the eyes is unknown (Num. 5:13; Job 28:21; Luke 19:42), but hiding the eyes from something is to ignore it (Isa. 1:15; Ezek. 22:26; cf. Lev. 20:4). The expression “before the eyes” signifies that an event has taken place in the presence of others, and they have witnessedit.
The eye is an important part of the body (1Cor. 12:16–21). A defective eye disqualified a priest from certain duties (Lev. 21:17–20). A conquering army often gouged out the eyes of the defeated enemy (Judg. 16:21; 2Kings 25:7), rendering them ineffective in battle (1Sam. 11:2). Destroying Israel’s eyes is the first among many punishments listed for breaking God’s covenant (Lev. 26:16). Paul testifies that the Galatians cared enough for him even to pluck out their eyes in order to give them to him (Gal. 4:15). The importance of the eye highlights the importance of Jesus’ demand to pluck it out if it causes one to stumble (Matt. 5:29; 18:9).
Perception and enlightenment. Opening eyes is a theme that runs through both Testaments. At times, opening the eyes simply refers to making one aware of previously unknown information. It may be in this sense that the eyes of Adam and Eve are opened, since they become aware of their nakedness (Gen. 3:7). This same kind of opening occurs when God reveals a well to Hagar (Gen. 21:19), when Balaam sees the angel of the Lord standing in his way (Num. 22:31), and when the disciples on the road to Emmaus recognize Jesus (Luke 24:31). This sense is extended into the spiritual realm, so that the eye is used figuratively as the principal organ of spiritual perception. To open or enlighten the eyes in this sense involves one of the following: (1)allowing one to understand spiritual truth in the law of God (Ps. 119:18), prophetic utterance (Num. 24:3), or by the Spirit of God (Eph. 1:18); or (2)leading someone to repentance and conversion (Acts 26:18). These spiritual eyes may also be blinded or closed, hindering the person from repenting (Isa. 6:10; Matt. 13:13; cf. 2Cor. 4:4).
The eye not only allows one to perceive the world but also helps others perceive the person. David has beautiful eyes, highlighting his handsome appearance (1Sam. 16:12). Leah has weak eyes, a characteristic that is contrasted to the beautiful appearance of her sister, Rachel (Gen. 29:17). A bountiful eye reveals a generous spirit (Prov. 22:9). Haughty eyes reveal arrogance (Ps. 18:27; Prov. 6:17), as do eyes that are exalted (Ps. 131:1; Prov. 30:13). Eyes may reveal one’s pity for another (Ezek. 16:5), but in the administration of justice, the eye is not allowed to pity or spare, meaning that the law will be executed to its fullest extent (Deut. 7:16; Ezek. 5:11). The eye that mocks a father or a mother reveals a person who holds them in contempt (Prov. 30:17).
Direction and evaluation. The eye also serves as a symbol for direction, care, and vast knowledge. Since the eye allows one to see, it helps set the proper course forward, physically (Num. 10:31) or spiritually (1John 2:11). The fact that God’s eyes are always upon the land of Israel demonstrates his care for it (Deut. 11:12). Likewise, his eyes are always upon the righteous, ready to help them (Ps. 34:15). Especially in apocalyptic literature, the many eyes of the living creatures are symbols of God’s omniscience (Ezek. 1:18; Rev. 4:6), while the eyes of God in general are symbols of his awareness (1Kings 9:3; Jer. 32:19; Amos 9:8; Heb. 4:13).
Finally, the eyes are associated with evaluation. The eyes of God often represent his favor or disfavor (Gen. 6:8; Deut. 21:9; 2Kings 10:30). Those who evaluate themselves in their own eyes are often led astray because the eyes can lead to sinful lust (Num. 15:39; Deut. 12:8; Judg. 17:6; Prov. 3:7; 1John 2:16).
Origins,Composition, and Constitution
Origins.The Bible is not unique in offering an account of human origins.Interesting accounts are found in Sumerian (Enki and Ninmah, Hymn toE-engurra), Akkadian (Atrahasis Epic, Enuma Elish), and Egyptiantexts (Pyramid Texts, Instruction of Merikare). These texts provide ahelpful window into the biblical world and show the common concern toexplain the origin and role of humanity in the world.
Onedistinct feature of ancient Near Eastern texts is that they generallyspeak of human origins in a collective sense. Specialists refer tothis phenomenon as polygenesis. Such a collective creation betterserves the purpose of the gods, who have made the human race as alabor force. In the Bible, however, the book of Genesis describes anoriginal human pair who are the progenitors of the human race. Thisphenomenon is referred to as monogenesis. Humanity is not merelycreated to serve and do the work of the gods. Instead, it is aspecial creation of God, intended to bear his image.
Composition.The composition of humanity is described in Gen. 2:7: “The LordGod formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into hisnostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.”Humanity is not distinct from animals in having the breath of life(1:30). Indeed, the description of the composition of humanity isalso quite, well, human. Genesis describes humans as made from thedust. Dust is not fertile, nor is it pliable. It refers to the earthand that which is dead. The wordplay between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah) appears tobe a major focus of the text (2:7) and suggests that the majorconnection being established concerns the first humans as archetypes.
Constitution.Certain passages of Scripture have led interpreters to posit atrichotomous nature of humanity (i.e., mind, body, soul; cf. 2Cor.4:16; 5:1–9; 1Thess. 5:23). Likewise, even though theGreek language can bifurcate the soul (psychē) and the body(sōma), a kind of dualism should not be inferred from this (cf.Matt. 6:25; 27:50; Luke 10:27; 2Cor. 4:11). Either approach isforeign to the unified biblical mind-set. The only dualism in theanthropological perspective of the NT is in the nature of humanity inrelation to Christ’s new creative work.
Formand Function
Form:male and female.Just as God created man (’ish), he also created woman (’ishah)(Gen. 1:26–27). Although woman is initially created as a“suitable helper” (2:18), it should be noted that theunderlying Hebrew term (’ezer) is used almost exclusively inreference to God elsewhere. This suggests that “suitablehelper” does not indicate a difference of essence, value, orstatus.
TheBible describes woman as coming from the “side” of man,probably communicating something about their equality (Gen. 2:21–22).Thus, it should be understood that just as all humanity shares aconnection to the ground, so also a man shares an intimate connectionwith a woman. Although the phrase “one flesh” often istaken as a euphemism, it probably is a remarkably descriptivestatement of the archetypal nature of Adam and Eve (cf. 2:24).
Function:image of God.The distinction between humanity and the other animals created by Godis that humans are created in God’s image. The concept of theimage of God, however, is not unique to the biblical text (Gen.1:26–27; cf. Instruction of Merikare). Throughout the ancientNear East, kings were thought to actually be the image of a god. Inthe Christian understanding, only Christ is the image of God (2Cor.4:4), whereas humanity is created in the image of God. Although thismay imply a kingly role with regard to humanity’s function overthe rest of creation, the main parallel should be seen in how imagesare meant to represent a god’s presence.
Humanityin Pauline Thought
Paul’sconception of humanity is thoroughly eschatological insomuch as hisvision of Christ as the image of God is identified with Christ as“risen Lord.” Christ as the image of God is the finaldestiny of the humanity that is “in Christ” (1Cor.15:23–28; 44–49; Eph. 1:9–10). Because of theeffects of sin, creation has been subjected to futility (Rom.8:19–22), and humanity to death (Rom. 5:12–14; 1Cor.15:21–22). Yet Paul’s outburst of “new creation”(Gal. 6:15; cf. 2Cor. 5:17) indicates his understanding of thecosmological, and therefore anthropological, effects of being unitedwith Christ. Indeed, if God is making the “former things”into “new things” (2Cor. 5:17; cf. Isa. 65:17–19),this new creative act certainly impacts humanity. That reality isalready partially realized in the elimination of distinctions in thispresent “evil age” (Gal. 1:4), for in Christ “thereis neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there maleand female, for you are all one” (Gal. 3:28; cf. 1Cor.12:12–13; Gen. 17). Until the end, the Christian lives in thetension of already beginning to experience the act of new creationand not yet completely disinheriting the effects of sin (Rom.8:18–30; 2Cor. 12:5–10).
That humankind has been created in the image of God indicatesits unique status above the animals because of a special similaritywith God. This status authorizes humankind to rule the earth andrequires respect toward people. The particulars of what the phrase“image of God” means have been understood in many ways.
Thephrase is rather rare. It first appears in Gen. 1:26–27, andthe same or similar phrases occur in five more verses (Gen. 5:1, 3;9:6; 1Cor. 11:7; James 3:9) that refer back to it. The NT alsorefers to Christ as the image of God and to believers becoming likethe image of Christ.
UnderstandingGenesis 1:26–27
Thismakes Gen. 1:26–27 the starting point for understanding thephrase. Several factors come into play: the contrast with thecreation of animals on the same day; the connection with humankindruling the other creatures; other elements of the broader context;the meaning of the words “image” (tselem) and “likeness”(demut); the meaning of the preposition “in”; and themeaning and use of images in the ancient Near East.
Inthe immediately preceding context, animals are made “accordingto their kinds,” whereas humans are made “in the image ofGod.” The context directly following also makes a distinctionbetween the two, granting humans rule, or dominion, over the animals.Being in the image of God certainly involves what makes humans uniquein contrast to the rest of the animal kingdom.
Thehistory of interpretation of the phrase “image of God” islong and voluminous. Just about anything from the broader contextthat seems important to the interpreter might be selected as the keymeaning; or whatever philosophical system is dominant at the timewhen the interpreter writes might be tapped as the “obvious”explanation of what being in the image of God means; or perhaps theinsights of a particular academic discipline or systematictheological system might be given preference. Thus, the meaning ofbeing created in the image of God has been associated with manythings, such as language, eternal soul, rationality, relationality,being male and female (often compared to the Trinity), physicalappearance, dominion, and personhood. The wide variety is possiblebecause the text of Scripture does not spell it out, and the optionsseem reasonable to their various proponents as explaining theuniqueness of humanity, something that clearly serves the context.
Althoughmany of these insights may be reasonable and relevant, it can beproblematic to select one as the key element. For example, to supportthe suggestion that being in the image of God means walking erect ontwo feet, one could point out that (1)humankind’s“walking” is in the broader context, (2)humanbeings “walking” with God uniquely contrasts to thecirc*mstances of other animals, and (3)standing erect on twofeet is a dominance move in the animal kingdom. But this is unlikelyto be convincing to anyone, for good reason. And the many optionsoffered by interpreters often look equally out of place fromanother’s perspective. For example, the text emphasizes thatGod created them “male and female,” a unity with adifference. God is a trinity, a unity with a difference. Is this,then, the image of God? Someone might point out that the animals arealso male and female, and that the text does not necessarily have theTrinity in view (there are other explanations for the plural “us”in Gen. 1:26, which many consider better explanations).
Studyingthe words “image” and “likeness” does notquickly clarify the issue. “Image” normally refers to astatue, typically of a god. And “likeness” normallyrefers to similar physical appearance. The true God is a spirit,lacking a particular physical form, and he forbids making a statue ofhimself. If the three-dimensional human physique is not the point,what remains of the terms “image” and “likeness”is simply some notion of similarity. It is this vagueness that haspromoted diverse understandings.
Thepreposition “in” is also much discussed, for it mightmean “in” or “as.” Thus humanity is perhapsmade in a like appearance to God, or in an unspecified similarity toGod. Or humanity has been created as God’s image on the earth.The first emphasizes what humanity is (being), the second whathumanity is to do (function). Yet the two, being and function,certainly are related, so the difference between them may beoverstated.
Thesurrounding cultures of the ancient Near East made images of theirgods. They believed not that the statue actually was the god butrather that it invoked the presence of the god and represented thegod to the people as a central location for interaction. TheBabylonian word for “image” is similar to the Hebrew andalso usually refers to a statue or artistic representation. It issometimes used figuratively about a king being the image of a god.And in Egypt we find the idea that humanity is the image of gods.This conceptual backdrop aligns with an understanding that being inthe image of God relates to the function of ruling.
Additionally,the phrase “and let them rule over” occurs in a sequencethat can indicate purpose or result. Thus, the passage may berendered, “Let us make man as our image, as our likeness, sothat they may rule.” That is, God set up human beings with adistinct nature for a distinct task, which he expressly includes whenblessing them (Gen. 1:28). We might still infer from generalrevelation some of the details that are relevant to that uniqueness,but we should avoid elevating them in importance.
OtherBiblical Passages
Thepassages that refer back to Gen. 1:26–27 emphasize honor andrespect for human individuals. Humans are to dominate the earth, notone another. They should not kill one another; otherwise they becomesubject to the death penalty (Gen. 9:6), and they should not curseothers but instead treat them with honor (James 3:9). But the motifhas no real prominence other than being in the beginning of theBible. After Gen. 9:6, the OT does not use the phrase “image ofGod.” The concept of human rule appears (e.g., Ps. 8), but theexpression “image of God” is more a subpoint under alarger topic than it is a heading for biblical teaching.
Inthe NT, Jesus is twice identified by the Greek equivalent to theHebrew phrase “image of God” (2Cor. 4:4; Col.1:15). Especially in the context of Col. 1:15, the emphasis is onChrist’s deity and so part of a different topic, despite thesimilar wording. The two verses about believers that refer to thelikeness of God and the image of the Creator (Col. 3:10; Eph. 4:24)deal with moral behavior and the sanctification of the believer (cf.Rom. 8:29; 2Cor. 3:18). Although they do not directly refer toGen. 1, they do address the common metaphor that humankind, bysinning, marred its imaging of God. To be conformed to the image ofChrist restores how humanity images God in the world.
The Petrine phrase “inner self” (lit., “hiddenperson of the heart” [1Pet. 3:4]) is nearly identicalwith the Pauline phrase “inner being.” There are threereferences to this inner person in Paul’s writings. Two ofthese clearly refer to a Christian as opposed to a non-Christian(2Cor. 4:16; Eph. 3:16); one is unclear (Rom. 7:22). Ratherthan import the meaning from the first two into Romans 7:22, weshould seek the broader semantic meaning of the phrase. It is theimmaterial aspects of humanity—mind, spirit—indistinction from the outward person, which wastes away (2Cor.4:16). In this inner sphere the Holy Spirit does his renewing andsaving work (Eph. 3:16). Thus, we must distinguish between “innerperson” and “new person” (Eph. 4:24; Col. 3:10),which does seem to have a soteriological sense, because the formermay still be corrupt, vain, and alienated from the life of God (Eph.4:18).
The Petrine phrase “inner self” (lit., “hiddenperson of the heart” [1Pet. 3:4]) is nearly identicalwith the Pauline phrase “inner being.” There are threereferences to this inner person in Paul’s writings. Two ofthese clearly refer to a Christian as opposed to a non-Christian(2Cor. 4:16; Eph. 3:16); one is unclear (Rom. 7:22). Ratherthan import the meaning from the first two into Romans 7:22, weshould seek the broader semantic meaning of the phrase. It is theimmaterial aspects of humanity—mind, spirit—indistinction from the outward person, which wastes away (2Cor.4:16). In this inner sphere the Holy Spirit does his renewing andsaving work (Eph. 3:16). Thus, we must distinguish between “innerperson” and “new person” (Eph. 4:24; Col. 3:10),which does seem to have a soteriological sense, because the formermay still be corrupt, vain, and alienated from the life of God (Eph.4:18).
Potteryin the Bible
TheBible contains numerous references to pottery, pottery making, andpotters. Clay pottery was the most common and easiest way to cookfood and to carry liquids throughout biblical times. Only pots usedfor very special occasions and locations (such as the temple) weremade out of a material (usually some metal) other than clay (Exod.38:3). Clay was the preferable material because it was freelyobtained, easy to manipulate, and required little technology to make.The downside of pottery is that it is easily broken and thus rendereduseless. Evidence of the abundance and affordability of pottery isseen in the instructions to break ceremonially unclean pottery ratherthan wash it (Lev. 15:12). Although cooking was the primary purposefor pottery, it could be used for a variety of applications,including storing items, carrying water, making lamps, and formingidols.
Potteryand the manufacture of pottery occasionally took on symbolicconnotations in the Bible. For example, in the psalms broken potterysymbolizes the life of the psalmist as he cries to God for help (Ps.31:12). In another psalm the psalmist envisions God destroying thenations that plot against God like someone who shatters pottery(2:9). Isaiah likens Egypt’s strength, in which Judah trustsmore than in God, to pottery ready to be shattered (Isa. 30:14).Similarly, Jeremiah says that the leaders of Judah will be punishedand will “fall and be shattered like fine pottery” (Jer.25:34 NIV mg.). Isaiah also uses several other metaphors related topottery. He says that God treads on rulers like a potter treads onclay, getting it soft and prepared for making pottery (Isa. 41:25).Isaiah also likens those who complain to God to pieces of brokenpottery trying to tell the potter how to make pots (45:9).
BothIsaiah and Jeremiah liken people to clay in God’s hand. Isaiahsays, “We are the clay, you are the potter; we are all the workof your hand” (Isa. 64:8). Jeremiah says essentially the samething, but instead of using Isaiah’s positive tone, he sees thehuman molding process to be a difficult and dangerous one that canresult in the potter rejecting the creation (Jer. 18:1–10).Jeremiah buys a pot, takes it to a gate in the city, the PotsherdGate (a potsherd is a broken and useless piece of pottery), andsmashes the pot symbolically to demonstrate how God feels about Judah(Jer. 19). Jeremiah’s choice of the Potsherd Gate was also partof the symbolism, as it is likely that most of the pottery inJerusalem was made near or at the Potsherd Gate. The apostle Paulcreates a similar metaphor, describing how a potter is able to takethe same lump of clay and make different kinds of pots, some of whichhave special uses, and others common uses. Paul implies that God hasthe right to determine how and for what purpose he creates humansbecause he is like the potter with the clay (Rom. 9:21). Paul alsorefers to humans as clay jars with treasure in them (2Cor.4:7).
Inanother example, after the destruction of Jerusalem the people incaptivity lament that they are simply like earthen pots before God(Lam. 4:2), suggesting that they are ready to receive the punishmentthat God has chosen for them to endure. Job also wonders if God hasmolded him like clay only then to turn him back into dust (Job 10:9).
Manufactureof Pottery
Preparingthe clay.Before any pottery can be made, the clay must be gathered andprepared for use. Clay collected from different geographical areaswill have different levels of pure clay and other earthen materials.Pure clay is very difficult to work with, but it produces some of thesmoothest and strongest pots. Most of the clay used in Palestine wasnot of superior quality, and so most often imperfections developed inthe pots as they were being made. We also know that during the timeof the late monarchy, potters in Israel tended to mix clay withdifferent kinds of sand to produce better results. With today’sadvanced forensic technology, it often can be determined where theclay used to make a pot was harvested. Because it was generallyimpractical to transport clay any long distance, this sort ofanalysis can also be helpful in determining the origin of the pot.Once the clay was harvested, depending on its quality and use, it wasoften necessary to prepare the clay by kneading or treading it. Thisprocess was vital for removing any impurities in the clay as well asmaking it malleable.
Shaping.Historically, the first pottery molded was made by hand and dried inthe sun. Nothing is known about the role of these early potters andwhether they were highly regarded in society. Many scholars believethat early pottery was made by women, to be used for very practicalpurposes such as cooking and carrying water. It is fairly easy todetermine the gender of the potter by measuring the natural hand andfinger marks left in the clay and comparing their size inrelationship to the average size of both men’s and women’shands. These rudimentary pots usually were made by laying coils ofclay one upon another.
Althoughit is not certain, the profession of being a potter likely did notdevelop until the invention of the potter’s wheel. The potter’swheel allowed the potter to create more-sophisticated pottery andalso gave the potter the ability to mass-produce pots. Severalexamples of potter’s wheels have been excavated dating toaround 3500–3000 BC in Sumer and Ur. Most potter’s wheelsduring biblical times consisted of two wheels. A larger and heavierwheel was placed close to the ground, with a pole in the center ofthis wheel going up to a second, smaller, and lighter wheel supportedby a table. The potter used his or her foot to move the larger wheel,which turned the smaller wheel. It is also possible that anapprentice turned the larger wheel. As the technology developed,sometimes two potter’s wheels were connected to one largerwheel so that two pots could be created at the same time.
Anothermethod for making clay items was the use of press molds. Press moldswere used to fashion clay by pushing the clay into the mold and thenallowing it to dry. As the clay dried, it shrank and pulled away fromthe mold and could easily be removed from the mold. This method wasused for molding figurines (most often used as household idols) andsmall oil lamps, which often were made of two molded pieces fusedtogether.
Decoratingand firing.Once a pot was finished being shaped, either on a wheel or in a mold,it often was decorated. The pot often was painted with pigment madefrom earth. Different painting styles can help in identifying a pot’splace of origin. Another common decoration method was to imprint thepot with different seals, symbols, or patterns. This was done byusing a wooden or metal tool and pressing it into the wet clay.Examples of this method include several pots found at Gibeon stampedwith what appear to be royal seals, which likely indicate that thepots and their contents belonged to the king. Much of the potteryfrom in and around Jerusalem has a red burnish applied to seal thepot and to add a smooth finish to the outside. By the time of themonarchy, potters were very sophisticated in their choice ofmaterials and often had some of the materials, such as special sands,imported from a considerable distance. These sands added to thesmoothness of the fired pot by creating a glaze on it.
Oncethe decoration of the pot was finished, the pot was dried in order toreveal any imperfections. If any imperfections were observed duringdrying, the pot was discarded. If no imperfections were seen, the potwas then fired. Depending on the potter’s resources and thetechnology the potter knew, the firing process could be as simple asplacing the pot in a hot fire or could include the use ofsophisticated kilns capable of producing extremely high and evenheat. Firing a pot was extremely difficult, because ideally the heatis kept at a constant temperature throughout the process, which wasnot an easy task when using an open flame for the heating source.Because the process of firing pots was a well-guarded trade secret,we know few details of how pots were fired during biblical times.
Typesof Pottery
Thereare several general categories of pottery, which are based on theircharacteristics and intended uses. Of course, for some extantexamples of pottery from archaeological digs, their usage cannot bedetermined. Tableware included cups, plates, bowls, and jugs. Theseitems tended to be more decorated than other pottery, much liketableware today tends to be more decorative than cooking pots.Cooking pots included pots with small, narrow rims and flat, openpans for frying and uncovered cooking. Storage vessels came in allsizes: pithoi, jars (two-handled), jugs (one-handled), smaller jugs(with no handles), and very small vessels for perfumes and othervaluable liquids. Also, it is not unusual to find various sizes oflamps.
Importanceof Pottery for Archaeology
Potteryhas become an important dating tool for archaeologists. While writtentexts do provide more archaeological data than pottery and religiousor cultural artifacts can be more visually interesting, it is potterythat helps the archaeologist piece all the information together.
Historyof dating pottery. Whiledoing archaeological work in Egypt, Flinders Petrie noticed that fordifferent time periods of Egyptian history there were different kindsof pottery, with very distinct and identifiable characteristics.These identifiable pottery characteristics included things such asthe thickness of the wall of the pot, the type of rim or lip on thepot, the pot’s handles, and any special decorative elements.These characteristics, Petrie discovered, could be used to date sitesthat had no other dating information. Petrie carefully logged eachpiece of pottery found at each site and over time developed anextensive catalog of pottery types and their respective dating.Later, while digging at Tell el-Hesi in Palestine, Petrie noticedthat each layer, or stratum, of the tell (archaeological mound) had adifferent type of pottery, much like the different kinds of potteryhe had noticed in Egypt. Because of his careful and painstaking workin Egypt, Petrie also noticed that the different types of pottery inPalestine were similar to those that he had uncovered in Egypt. As aresult, Petrie was able to develop a chronology of pottery that couldbe used to date different archaeological digs and strata in theentire ancient Near East. Later, W.F. Albright expanded onPetrie’s work by adding several sublayers and further refiningthe dating of each time period of pottery.
Tohelp explain this significant discovery, L.E. Stager uses theexample of how bottles for soft drinks have changed over the years.For example, he notes that when soda bottles were firstmass-marketed, the writing on the bottle was part of the glass withraised letters. Over time the bottle changed and evolved; differenttypes of writing were used on glass bottles until ultimately thebottles were smooth and the words were painted on them. In morerecent years soda bottles have been made of plastic. This evolutionof the soda bottle can roughly illustrate the changes in pottery overtime. Because this method of dating depends on a catalog ofdocumented pottery, it requires that all pottery found, no matter howinsignificant, be cataloged and recorded so that others can comparethe pottery finds from one place with those in other places.
Timeperiods.In the dating of ancient Near Eastern pottery, history is dividedinto broad time periods that are then further subdivided. The MiddleBronze Age (c. 2200–1550 BC) encompasses the time of theearliest biblical stories, including perhaps the stories of thepatriarchs. During this period and the Early Bronze Age (c. 3300–2200BC), the artisanship evident in the pottery was limited, and pots hadlittle or no decoration; however, the skill applied to the vesselshad improved dramatically from the prior period, the Chalcolithic(4500–3300 BC). These vessels show thin walls and evidence ofmass production.
TheLate Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC), which likely includes thetime of Moses and perhaps Joshua, shows an unusual and dramaticdecrease in the quality of local Canaanite pottery. There is no knownexplanation for this deterioration, but it is evident. At the sametime, pottery from other coastal regions, especially Mycenaean Greeceand Crete, is very common, and pots from these locations are quitesophisticated and highly decorated. This indicates that during thistime there was a strong cultural influence from these areas. Somehave suggested that this is due to the colonization of parts ofPalestine by the Sea Peoples, who perhaps are the Philistines ofbiblical history.
TheIron Age (c. 1200–586 BC), which encompasses the time periodfrom the Israelite conquest and settlement through the monarchy,demonstrates more low-quality pottery, especially early in thisperiod. In contrast with the examples of pottery manufactured locallyat Israelite sites, Philistine pottery is quite sophisticated, highlydecorated with red and black duotones in geometric patterns. Thelater pottery of the monarchy shows much more skill andsophistication.
ThePersian (539–332 BC), Hellenistic (332–63 BC), and Romanperiods (after 63 BC) conclude the biblical periods. Each of theseperiods is dominated by the aesthetics and quality of the invadingcountries’ pottery. By this time, trade routes were stronglyestablished, and so the invaders, it appears, flooded the marketswith their pottery, often to the detriment of the local potters.
The word “likeness” is used in various contexts.In 2Kings 16:10, King Ahaz wanted to have the exact likenessand pattern of the altar from Damascus, indicating a physicalreplica. In 2Chron. 4:3, “likeness of oxen” (NKJV;NIV: “figures of bulls”) is a physical reference. InEzekiel’s visions the word “likeness” refers tovisual similarities (Ezek. 1). Isaiah 13:4 speaks of “a noiseon the mountains, like that of a great multitude,” referring toan auditory similarity.
Thefoundational concept, however, is found in Gen. 1:26: “Let usmake mankind in our image, in our likeness.” This announces thehigh status of humans as the pinnacle of God’s creation (alsoGen. 5:1–2). Genesis 5:3 says that Adam fathered Seth “inhis own likeness, in his own image,” employing both words foundin 1:26. The precise meaning of this has been much debated. Threethings are to be noted. First, the expression “let us,”versus “let there be,” implies a personal aspect. Itrefers to the human capacity to relate to God in worship andobedience of his word (2Cor. 4:4; Eph. 4:24). Second, the word“likeness” describes human beings as not simplyrepresentative of God but representational. Humankind is the visible,corporeal representative of the invisible, bodiless God. Third, beingin God’s likeness/image sets human beings apart from everythingelse that God has made. Humankind’s supremacy and uniquenessare emphasized.
Origins,Composition, and Constitution
Origins.The Bible is not unique in offering an account of human origins.Interesting accounts are found in Sumerian (Enki and Ninmah, Hymn toE-engurra), Akkadian (Atrahasis Epic, Enuma Elish), and Egyptiantexts (Pyramid Texts, Instruction of Merikare). These texts provide ahelpful window into the biblical world and show the common concern toexplain the origin and role of humanity in the world.
Onedistinct feature of ancient Near Eastern texts is that they generallyspeak of human origins in a collective sense. Specialists refer tothis phenomenon as polygenesis. Such a collective creation betterserves the purpose of the gods, who have made the human race as alabor force. In the Bible, however, the book of Genesis describes anoriginal human pair who are the progenitors of the human race. Thisphenomenon is referred to as monogenesis. Humanity is not merelycreated to serve and do the work of the gods. Instead, it is aspecial creation of God, intended to bear his image.
Composition.The composition of humanity is described in Gen. 2:7: “The LordGod formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into hisnostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.”Humanity is not distinct from animals in having the breath of life(1:30). Indeed, the description of the composition of humanity isalso quite, well, human. Genesis describes humans as made from thedust. Dust is not fertile, nor is it pliable. It refers to the earthand that which is dead. The wordplay between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah) appears tobe a major focus of the text (2:7) and suggests that the majorconnection being established concerns the first humans as archetypes.
Constitution.Certain passages of Scripture have led interpreters to posit atrichotomous nature of humanity (i.e., mind, body, soul; cf. 2Cor.4:16; 5:1–9; 1Thess. 5:23). Likewise, even though theGreek language can bifurcate the soul (psychē) and the body(sōma), a kind of dualism should not be inferred from this (cf.Matt. 6:25; 27:50; Luke 10:27; 2Cor. 4:11). Either approach isforeign to the unified biblical mind-set. The only dualism in theanthropological perspective of the NT is in the nature of humanity inrelation to Christ’s new creative work.
Formand Function
Form:male and female.Just as God created man (’ish), he also created woman (’ishah)(Gen. 1:26–27). Although woman is initially created as a“suitable helper” (2:18), it should be noted that theunderlying Hebrew term (’ezer) is used almost exclusively inreference to God elsewhere. This suggests that “suitablehelper” does not indicate a difference of essence, value, orstatus.
TheBible describes woman as coming from the “side” of man,probably communicating something about their equality (Gen. 2:21–22).Thus, it should be understood that just as all humanity shares aconnection to the ground, so also a man shares an intimate connectionwith a woman. Although the phrase “one flesh” often istaken as a euphemism, it probably is a remarkably descriptivestatement of the archetypal nature of Adam and Eve (cf. 2:24).
Function:image of God.The distinction between humanity and the other animals created by Godis that humans are created in God’s image. The concept of theimage of God, however, is not unique to the biblical text (Gen.1:26–27; cf. Instruction of Merikare). Throughout the ancientNear East, kings were thought to actually be the image of a god. Inthe Christian understanding, only Christ is the image of God (2Cor.4:4), whereas humanity is created in the image of God. Although thismay imply a kingly role with regard to humanity’s function overthe rest of creation, the main parallel should be seen in how imagesare meant to represent a god’s presence.
Humanityin Pauline Thought
Paul’sconception of humanity is thoroughly eschatological insomuch as hisvision of Christ as the image of God is identified with Christ as“risen Lord.” Christ as the image of God is the finaldestiny of the humanity that is “in Christ” (1Cor.15:23–28; 44–49; Eph. 1:9–10). Because of theeffects of sin, creation has been subjected to futility (Rom.8:19–22), and humanity to death (Rom. 5:12–14; 1Cor.15:21–22). Yet Paul’s outburst of “new creation”(Gal. 6:15; cf. 2Cor. 5:17) indicates his understanding of thecosmological, and therefore anthropological, effects of being unitedwith Christ. Indeed, if God is making the “former things”into “new things” (2Cor. 5:17; cf. Isa. 65:17–19),this new creative act certainly impacts humanity. That reality isalready partially realized in the elimination of distinctions in thispresent “evil age” (Gal. 1:4), for in Christ “thereis neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there maleand female, for you are all one” (Gal. 3:28; cf. 1Cor.12:12–13; Gen. 17). Until the end, the Christian lives in thetension of already beginning to experience the act of new creationand not yet completely disinheriting the effects of sin (Rom.8:18–30; 2Cor. 12:5–10).
Behind the English translation “mercy” liediverse biblical words in Hebrew (khesed, khanan, rakham) and inGreek (charis, eleos, oiktirmos, splanchnon). These words are alsotranslated as “love,” “compassion,” “grace,”“favor,” “kindness,” “loving-kindness,”and so on, depending on context. Hence, a conceptual approach to themeaning of “mercy” is best.
God’sMercy
Mercyas part of God’s character.Mercy is a distinguishing characteristic of the nature of God. God iscalled “the Father of mercies” (2Cor. 1:3 NRSV[NIV: “Father of compassion”]). God is “rich inmercy” (Eph. 2:4; cf. 2Sam. 24:14; Dan. 9:9). God’smercy was demonstrated in his covenantal faithfulness to his people(1Kings 8:23–24; Mic. 7:18–20). God redeemed theoppressed Israelites from slavery under Pharaoh because of his mercy,which was stirred when he heard their groaning and cry for help.Here, the rekindling of God’s mercy toward the Israelites wasdepicted in terms of remembering his covenant with Abraham, Isaac,and Jacob (Exod. 2:23–25). Mercy is a manifestation of God’sfaithfulness to his covenant. Hence, God’s mercy to hiscovenant people never ceases (Pss. 119:132; 103:17).
Godhas absolute sovereignty in electing the people to whom he wills toshow mercy. A classic expression appears in Exod. 33:19: “Iwill have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassionon whom I will have compassion.” Paul quoted this to explainGod’s sovereignty in electing Jacob as the recipient of God’smercy (Rom. 9:13–15). God’s mercy cannot be acquired byhuman effort or desire (Rom. 9:16). God even ordered the Israelitesto show no mercy to the Canaanites because of their corruption andidolatry (Deut. 7:2).
Diverseimages are used to describe God’s mercy. God is compared to aloving father who has compassion on his children (Jer. 31:20; Mal.3:17). “As a father has compassion on his children, so the Lordhas compassion on those who fear him; for he knows how we are formed,he remembers that we are dust” (Ps. 103:13–14). God’scompassion is also compared to that of a nursing mother who feeds herbaby at her breast (Isa. 49:15). The images of the loving father andthe loving mother reflect closely the heart of God’s mercytoward his chosen people. God is especially merciful to the needy,the weak, the afflicted, and the oppressed (Exod. 2:23–24; Ps.123:2–3; Isa. 49:13; Heb. 4:16). God is called “a fatherto the fatherless” and “a defender of widows” (Ps.68:5). Sinners appeal for God’s mercy when they requestforgiveness (Ps. 51:1). “Have mercy on me” is a commonform of expression when the psalmist entreats God for his forgiveness(Pss. 41:4, 10; 51:1). God’s mercy is also shown in his act ofsalvation and blessing (Exod. 15:13; Deut. 13:17–18; Judg.2:18; Eph. 2:4–5).
God’smercy in redemptive history.Redemptive history is a successive demonstration of God’s mercytoward his chosen people. It was because of God’s mercy that hetook the initiative to save fallen human beings (Gen. 3:15). Deathwas the due penalty for Adam and Eve (Gen. 2:17), but God preachedthe good news of mercy that the descendant of the woman would somedaycrush the head of the serpent. In Rev. 20:2 that ancient serpent inthe garden of Eden is identified as “the devil, or Satan,”whose head was crushed by Jesus Christ on the cross and is bound bythe coming Messiah “for a thousand years” and will be“thrown into the lake of burning sulfur” (Rev. 20:2, 10).In spite of God’s judgment on Cain, the first murderer, Godshowed mercy by putting a mark on him so that no one would kill him(Gen. 4:15). As the psalmist later confesses, God proves himself asthe merciful God who “does not treat us as our sins deserve orrepay us according to our iniquities” (Ps. 103:10).
Noahand his family were saved from the judgment of the flood because ofGod’s special mercy toward them (Gen. 6:8). Immediately afterGod confused the languages of human beings because of their challengeto him (Gen. 11:1–9), God showed mercy on Abram, “awandering Aramean” (Deut. 26:5), and designated him to be thefather of his chosen people (Gen. 12:1–3). Jacob’selection originated solely from God’s mercy, as Paul pointedout by quoting Scripture: “Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated”(Rom. 9:13). The exodus is also the clearest evidence of God’sdemonstration of mercy toward his chosen people (Exod. 2:23–25).They were saved not by their own righteousness but rather by God’smercy on the covenant people, who suffered under the bondage ofPharaoh’s slavery. God’s mercy reached its climax when hesent his only Son, Jesus Christ, to save sinners (Rom. 5:8). It isbecause of God’s mercy that we are saved, not because of ourrighteousness (Titus 3:5).
Christ’sMercy
JesusChrist lived a life full of mercy. He is, in a sense, the bodilymanifestation of God’s mercy. Jesus expressed deep mercywhenever he saw the sick and the lost. The writers of the Gospelsdescribe Jesus’ demonstrations of mercy when he healed theblind, the lame, the deaf, the leprous, the demon-possessed, and thedead (Matt. 9:36; 14:14; 20:34; Mark 1:41; 5:19; 6:34; 8:2; Luke7:13; John 11:33). Jesus especially had compassion on the crowds, whodid not have a spiritual leader, and he compared them to “sheepwithout a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36).
Jesus’ministry of healing and evangelism was motivated by his deep mercyand compassion toward people in physical and spiritual need (Luke4:16–21; cf. Isa. 61:1–2). Whenever the sick appealed tohis mercy, Jesus never refused to dispense it to them (Matt. 15:22;17:14–18). For example, he healed the two blind men whoentreated his mercy (Matt. 20:30–34). When a leper, kneelingbefore him, entreated his mercy, Jesus touched him (risking his ownuncleanness according to the law) and healed him (Matt. 8:2–3).When a centurion asked for Jesus’ mercy on his sick servant, hewas willing to go and heal the sick man (Matt. 8:5–13). Jesus’mercy was aroused especially when he saw people crying for the dead,and even he shed tears (John 11:33–35). When Jesus saw a widowcrying for her dead son during a funeral procession, he comforted andhad compassion on her and made her son alive (Luke 7:12–15).
Accordingto Heb. 2:17–18, Jesus became “a merciful and faithfulhigh priest” to make atonement for the sins of his people. Heis also compared to the high priest who is able to sympathize withour weaknesses because he “has been tempted in every way, justas we are” (Heb. 4:15). His high priestly work on earth washighlighted in terms of his ministry of mercy toward his people. LikeGod’s mercy, Jesus’ mercy was shown in his actions ofsalvation (Luke 19:10; Eph. 5:2; 1Tim. 1:14–16; Titus3:4–7), of blessing (Mark 10:13–16), and of forgiveness(Mark 2:10; Luke 23:34). Paul’s personal experience led him toconfess, “He saved us, not because of righteous things we haddone, but because of his mercy” (Titus 3:5). Jesus’character of mercy was most vividly manifested on the cross when heprayed for the forgiveness of the crucifying soldiers and the cursingcrowds (Luke 23:33–37).
HumanResponse to God’s Mercy
Whatis the proper response to God’s mercy and compassion? Godexpects believers to show the same kind of mercy toward other people.One of the best examples is the parable of the unmerciful servant(Matt. 18:23–35). The central focus of this parable is on theunmerciful servant, to whom a tremendous mercy is shown by the king,but who refuses to show a little mercy to his fellow servant. Theparable concludes with the king’s statement that no mercy willbe shown to those who do not show mercy and forgiveness to others.Hence, a forgiving attitude is a must for believers, who havereceived immeasurable mercy from God when he forgave their sins atthe time of repentance. The Lord’s Prayer also includes thebeliever’s forgiveness of others as being inseparably linked tothe request for forgiveness from God (Matt. 6:12). Jesus affirms thisidea in a subsequent statement: “For if you forgive otherpeople when they sin against you, your heavenly Father will alsoforgive you. But if you do not forgive others their sins, your Fatherwill not forgive your sins” (6:14–15).
Mercyis one of the eight blessings in the Beatitudes: “Blessed arethe merciful, for they will be shown mercy” (Matt. 5:7). Jesus’response to the critical Pharisees reveals that our merciful lifeshould precede our religious life (9:13). According to the parable ofthe good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), the true neighbor is theone who shows mercy to the afflicted. Its conclusion, “Go anddo likewise” (10:37), requires believers to show mercy to theirsuffering neighbors. At the last judgment the righteous arecharacterized by their lives of showing mercy to the hungry, thethirsty, the stranger, the unclothed, the sick, and the imprisoned(Matt. 25:37–40). In Luke 6:36, Jesus summarizes the law ofmercy: “Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful.”According to James, “judgment without mercy will be shown toanyone who has not been merciful”; however, “mercytriumphs over judgment” (James 2:12–13). And according tothe prophets, a merciless life is characteristic of godless people(Isa. 13:18; Jer. 6:23; 21:7; 50:42; Amos 1:11–12).
Itis by God’s mercy that believers can persevere during the timeof suffering (2Cor. 4:1). Their prayer is the channel throughwhich they draw God’s mercy. Hence, the writer of Hebrewsexhorts believers to “approach God’s throne of grace withconfidence, so that we may receive mercy” (Heb. 4:16).
The study of human beings, their nature and origins. TheChristian understanding of anthropology stems from a biblical view ofhumankind’s relationship to God.
TheOrigin of Humankind
Accordingto Genesis, the creation of humankind took place on the sixth day ofthe creation week. The amount of narrative space allotted to this day(Gen. 1:24–31) testifies to the special importance of whathappened. Human beings were made on the same day as the animals.Human beings were not given a day of their own, showing that theyhave a certain kinship with the animals, although they are far morethan highly successful and adaptive mammals. This has implicationsfor the care of animals and of the environment generally. The valueof human beings and their special place in the created order is clearin passages such as Pss. 8:5–6; 104:14–15.
Createdin the image of God.Whenit came to the making of human beings, God deliberated over thiscrucial step (Gen. 1:26). The plural of exhortation in “Let usmake man in our image” signals that the decision to makehumankind was the most important one that God had made so far.Genesis 1 says that human beings are like God in some way.
Variousopinions have been canvassed as to what the “image” is.We cannot totally exclude the physical form of humans, given God’shumanoid form in OT appearances (theophanies; e.g., Isa. 6:1; Ezek.1:26; Amos 9:1). The image has sometimes been interpreted as a task,the exercising of dominion (Gen. 1:28), with humanity appointed ascreation’s king, ruling under God. But the image is betterunderstood as the precondition for rule rather than rule itself. Theimage shows human worth (Gen. 9:6) and differentiates humans from allother creatures. It is proper for the Bible to use anthropomorphiclanguage for God, for humans are remarkably like God. Both male andfemale are in the image of God (“in the image of God he createdthem; male and female he created them” [1:27]), so that thedivine image is not maleness, nor is sexual differentiation theimage. Commonly, the image of God is thought to be some peculiarquality of human beings—for example, rationality, speech, moralsense, personality, humans as relational beings.
Everycentury has its own view of what is the essence of humanity. However,nothing in the passage allows a choice among such alternatives. Thepoint of the passage is simply the fact of the likeness, with noexact definition being provided. The fact of the image is the basisof the divine prohibition of murder and of the strict penalty appliedto the transgressor (9:4–6). The fall into sin affected everyaspect of the human constitution, and the Bible does not minimize thefact of human sinfulness (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Rom. 3:10–18);nevertheless, humans are still in the image of God (Gen. 5:1–3;9:6; 1 Cor. 11:7). God’s plan of salvation is aimed atridding creation (and especially humanity) of the baneful effects ofsin, and this will be achieved through the work of Christ, who is theimage of God (2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15–20; Heb. 1:1–3;2:5–18). The outcome will be the conformity of believers inChrist to his glorious image (Rom. 8:29–30; 2 Cor. 3.18).
Placein the created order.God’s purpose in giving human beings the divine image is “sothey may rule” (NET [Gen. 1:26b translated as a purposeclause]). The syntax suggests that the image is a presupposition ofdominion. It is plain that such a delegated authority makes humansstewards. The vegetarian diet of Gen.1:29 (there was no eating ofmeat at first) represents a limitation to the human right ofdominion. Adam’s naming of the animals was (in part) expressiveof his sovereignty over them (2:19). Later, Noah was charged to bringpairs of animals into the ark to preserve them alive (6:19–20),showing care for other creatures. The patriarchs tended flocks(13:2–9; 26:12–14), and Joseph’s relief measuressaved the lives of people and animals (47:15–18). The wantondestruction of the Promised Land was expressly forbidden (Deut.20:19–20). Humanity is accountable to God for the stewardshipof the earth. The divine command “be fruitful and multiply”(Gen. 1:28 NRSV) shows that God’s purpose is that the humanrace populate the whole earth.
AtGen. 2:7 the biblical narrative becomes thoroughly anthropocentric,picturing the little world that God establishes around the first man,so this account is quite different from the cosmic presentation ofGen. 1. In Gen. 1 humankind is the apex of a pyramid, the last andhighest of a series of creatures; in Gen. 2 the man is the center ofa circle, everything else made to fit around him, and his connectionto the physical earth is emphasized. In either view, a very specialplace is given to human beings in the created order. The two picturesare complementary, not contradictory.
The“man” (’adam) is formed from the “ground”(’adamah), with the related Hebrew words making a pun. Man’sname reminds him of his earthy origins. He is made from the “dust,”which hints at his coming death. He will return to the dust (Gen.3:19; cf. Job 10:8–9; Ps. 103:14; Isa. 29:16). The reference to“the breath of life” (Gen. 2:7) is due to the fact thatthis leaves a person at death (Job 34:14–15; Ps. 104:29–30),so man’s (potential) mortality is implied. Ironically, themaking of man is described using the language of death. What isdescribed in Gen. 2 is the making of the first man, from whom therest of the human race has descended, not the making of humankind,though the word ’adam can mean that in other contexts.
TheNature of Humankind
Body,soul, and spirit.Arguments over whether human nature is bipartite (body and soul) ortripartite (body, soul, spirit) are not to be decided by arbitraryappeal to isolated verses. Verses can be found in apparent supportfor both the first view (e.g., Matt. 10:28) and the second (e.g.,1 Thess. 5:23), but certainly the first scheme is much moreprevalent in the Bible. “Soul” and “spirit”can be used interchangeably (Eccles. 3:21; 12:7; Ezek. 18:31). Deathis marked by the parting of soul/spirit and body, but it would be amistake to think that human beings are made up of separate componentparts, or that the physical body is only a dispensable shell and notessential to true humanity. The physicality of human existence in the“body” is owned and celebrated in Scripture, part of thatbeing the positive attitude to sexuality when properly expressed(Song of Songs; 1 Cor. 7) and the nonascetic nature of biblicalethics (1 Cor. 10:31; Col. 2:23). The doctrine of theresurrection of the body is the fullest expression of this (1 Cor.15), in contrast to ancient Greek thought that viewed the body asinherently evil and understood salvation as the immortality of theliberated, disembodied soul.
Thedifferent words used in relation to persons are only intended torefer to and at times focus on different aspects of unified humannature. References to the “soul” may stress individualresponsibility (e.g., Ezek. 18:4 NASB: “The soul who sins willdie”). In Ps. 103:1–2, “O my soul” expressesemphatic self-encouragement to praise God and is in parallel with“all my inmost being”—that is, “my wholebeing” (an example of synecdoche: a part standing for the whole[cf. Ps. 35:10]). These are ways of referring to oneself as a personwho expresses will and intention (cf. Ps. 42:5–6, 11). The“flesh” is used to stress the weakness of mortal humanity(e.g., Isa. 40:6 RSV: “All flesh is grass”). The “heart”is the volitional center of a human being (Prov. 4:23; cf. Mark7:17–23). The emotional and empathetic reactions of humans aredescribed by reference to the organs: “liver,” “kidneys,”“bowels.”
Moralsand responsibility.In Gen. 2 the complexities of the man’s moral relation to Godand his relations with the soil, with the animals, and with the womanare explored. God deposited the man in the garden “to work itand take care of it” (2:15). The words chosen to designate theman’s work prior to the fall have an aura of worship aboutthem, for they are later used in the OT for the cultic actions ofserving and guarding within the sanctuary. The priests served byoffering sacrifices, and the Levites guarded the gates of the sacredprecinct. A theology of work as a religious vocation is presented.The man was a kind of king-priest in the garden of God.
Themoral responsibility of humanity is signaled from the beginning.God’s command gives permission for the man to eat from “anytree” except one (Gen. 2:16–17) and as such indicatesman’s freedom, so that this command is no great restriction.The wording “you are free to eat” reinforces the pointabout God’s generous provision. The prohibition is embedded inthe description of God’s fatherly care for the man and graciousact in placing him in the garden. The divine restriction is slightand not at all overbearing, though the serpent will seek to make itappear mean-spirited (3:1). The command and prohibition are the veryfirst words of God to the man, marking them out as of fundamentalimportance for the relationship between them. The prohibition (“youmust not eat . . .”) is an absolute one in thestyle of the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1–17; Deut. 5:6–21).What is placed before the man is a test that gives him theopportunity to express his loyalty to God. A relationship ofobedience and trust requires the possibility of choice and theopportunity to disobey (if that is what he wants to do). The moralnature and responsibility of individuals is not a late discovery bythe prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 18); rather, it is the presuppositionbehind the Mosaic law, for the commands of the Decalogue (“youshall not . . .”) are phrased as commands toindividuals (as the Hebrew makes clear). On the other hand, theconcept of corporate responsibility is also present (e.g., Achan’spunishment in Josh. 7).
Relationships.Human beings are relational by nature, as the creation of the womanas a helper and partner for the first man makes plain (Gen. 2:18–25).Later in Scripture this is put in more general terms, so thatfriendship and mutual cooperation are shown to be essential to life(Eccles. 4:7–12). The body life of the church reflects the samefact and need (1 Cor. 12). In Psalms, human needs andvulnerability find their answer and fulfillment in God, with thepsalmist acknowledging his frailty and his creaturely dependence onGod (e.g., Ps. 90). This also shows the folly of sinful human pride,against which the prophets so often inveighed (e.g., Isa. 2:9,11–17, 22).
A synonym of “strength.” “Power”often translates the Hebrew words koakh or ’az or the Greekword dynamis, all of which denote strength or might. The Hebrew wordyad (“hand”) may also denote power when it is used tospeak of the dominion of a ruler (e.g., 2Kings 17:7 [NASB:“hand of Pharaoh”; NIV: “power of Pharaoh”]).
Althoughhumans have a degree of power, God is omnipotent, all-powerful (Jer.32:17). He utilized his great power in creating the world (Jer.51:15; Rom. 1:20; Rev. 4:11). He has also displayed his power throughother mighty acts, such as delivering the Israelites from Egypt(Exod. 14:31; Deut. 9:26). The wisdom literature extols God’spower (Job 9:4; Pss. 20:6; 66:3; 147:5), as do the prophets (Isa.40:10; Jer. 27:5; Dan. 2:20; Nah. 1:3) and the letters of the NT(1Cor. 6:14; Eph. 1:18–21; Col. 2:10). God continues todisplay his power through the gospel (Rom. 1:16), not only inrescuing believers from their sins (1Cor. 1:24–25) butalso in empowering them to live holy lives (2Cor. 4:7).
TheHoly Spirit has acted and continues to act as the agent of God’spower (Judg. 14:6; 1Sam. 16:13; Acts 1:8). Just as the HolySpirit has done many powerful signs and wonders through Jesus and theapostles (Acts 10:38; Rom. 15:18–19), he gives rebirth to eachChristian through his power (Gal. 4:29). The Holy Spirit alsostrengthens Christians with power “so that Christ may dwell in[their] hearts through faith” (Eph. 3:17).
The Bible has much to say about suffering. While in the OTsuffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev.26:16–36; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25;cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by whichblessing comes to humanity.
TheBible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17;6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18;1Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assumethat he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4,20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in thefinal chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friendsfor their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writermakes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness.Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume thatblindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesusrejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3,6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).
Theprayers of suffering people are expressed in the sixteen communal andthirty-seven individual laments in the book of Psalms. Within thelaments the writers describe their problems, express feelings, makerequests, ask questions (“How long, Lord?” [13:1]; “Whyhave you forsaken me?” [22:1]), and lodge complaints againstGod (“My eyes fail, looking for my God [69:3]), enemies (“Youhave made us an object of derision to our neighbors, and our enemiesmock us” [80:6]), and even themselves (“I am a worm andnot a man” [22:6]).
TheNT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in theOT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3;26:22–23; 1Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps.22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presentedas the answer to human suffering: (1)Through the incarnation,God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8;Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2)Through his suffering, Christ paid the pricefor sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set freefrom sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18).(3)Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom.8:34–35). (4)Christ is the example in suffering (1Pet.2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1Pet. 4:13),and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to sufferas his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5)Christ provideshope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1Cor. 15:20–26; Phil.3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev.21:4).
Thereare many NT examples of suffering believers (John 15:20–21;Acts 4:3; 5:18; 7:57–60; 8:1–3; 12:1–5; 14:19;16:22–24; 18:17; 2Cor. 6:4–5, 8–10; Heb.10:32; 1Pet. 5:9; Rev. 2:10). Suffering is part of God’splan for his people (Acts 9:16; 1Thess. 3:2–4) and ispart of what it means to be a follower of Christ Jesus (Acts 14:22;Rom. 8:17; Phil. 1:29; 1Pet. 2:21; 4:12).
TheNT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it hasbecome part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering ofbelievers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel(Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2Cor. 4:10–11;6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1Thess. 2:14–16;2Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2Cor.1:6; 1Thess. 2:16; 2Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb.10:32–34, 38–39; 1Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God(Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), andthe crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of thedevelopment toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor.4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1Pet. 1:7; 4:1).
Sufferingis associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal(2Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness,sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2Cor. 4:4–10);comfort and endurance (2Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8);blessing (1Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2Cor.4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James1:2; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christiansuffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character andhope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2Cor. 12:10), and maturity andcompleteness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentarywhen compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom.8:18; 2Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1Pet. 1:5–7;4:12–13).
Throughoutthe Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OTlaw provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged,and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10,35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesusregularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3;19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom.12:8; 2Cor. 8:7; 1Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom.12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visitprisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.
In classical Greek, “world” (kosmos)communicated the idea that the external universe is a well-orderedsystem. In early Greek usage, the term was used with reference tospecific types of social orderings, such as the seating order ofrowers (Homer, Od. 13.77), the order of soldiers (Homer, Il. 12.225),and well-ordered political states such as Sparta (Herodotus, Hist.1.65).
CreatedWorld
Inthe OT, the notion of the created “world” departed fromthe Greek understanding specifically in that creation is never seenas an independent entity controlled by an impersonal, all-embracingorder. Rather, the universe, usually described with the phrase “theheavens and the earth” (Gen. 1:1; 2:1, 4; Ps. 113:6; Jer.10:11) or at times the “all” or “all things”(Ps. 103:19; Jer. 10:16), is always understood in its relationship toits creator: “He who created the heavens, he is God; he whofashioned and made the earth, he founded it; he did not create it tobe empty, but formed it to be inhabited—he says: ‘I amthe Lord, and there is no other’ ” (Isa. 45:18).Here, the “world” (“earth”) refers to thematerial elements that make up the planet (see also Jer. 32:17; Zech.12:1) and the sum total of the entire universe (cf. Acts 17:24). Evenin the account of creation in Gen. 1:1–2:4, where many of theelements of the physical world are mentioned (waters, firmament,stars, etc.), the primary intent of the account is to convey that Godis Lord over everything because he is the Creator. Often thesecreated elements that make up the world are praised not for their owninherent beauty, but as a testimony to the majesty, supremacy, andomnipotence of the Creator (Pss. 8; 19:1–6; 33:6–9). InPs. 148:3–6 the elements within the natural order (kosmos) areinstructed to praise God: “Praise him, sun and moon; praisehim, all you shining stars. Praise him, you highest heavens and youwaters above the skies. Let them praise the name of the Lord, for athis command they were created, and he established them for ever andever—he issued a decree that will never pass away.”
Thoughnot providing a comprehensive description, the OT does at times referto how the world is constructed as a whole. The “vault”(Gen. 1:6–20 [RSV: “firmament”]) of heavenseparates the waters above from the waters below (which arerestrained by God’s sovereign care [Gen. 1:7; 7:11; 49:25]),and this area or chamber rests on “pillars” (Job 26:11).At times the earth is described as a disc with the sanctuary as itscenter point (Judg. 9:37; Ezek. 38:12), which rests on pillars (Job9:6). There is an underworld, from which there is no return (Job10:21); however, the OT does not engage in the kind of speculationregarding the underworld as is evident in the Greco-Roman tradition.
Earthand Its Inhabitants
Theterm “world” conveys other nuances in the Bible. It oftenrefers to the inhabitants of the earth or the place of human life:“He rules the world in righteousness and judges the peopleswith equity” (Ps. 9:8 [cf. Pss. 96:13; 98:9]); or, “Comenear, you nations, and listen; pay attention, you peoples! Let theearth hear, and all that is in it, the world, and all that comes outof it!” (Isa. 34:1). Also, in the Gospels “world”is used in this way: “What good is it for someone to gain thewhole world, yet forfeit their soul?” (Mark 8:36). Matthew 4:8refers to all the kingdoms of the world. Also the expressions “cominginto the world” (John 1:9; 3:19), “in the world”(John 1:10; 2Cor. 1:12), and “leave this world”(1Cor. 5:10) can be understood as referring to the sphere ofhuman life.
UngodlyCulture and Worldview
“World”can also refer to something more than the material world or humanityin general; it can refer to the entire cultural value system or worldorder that is hostile toward God. The “world” is a commonbiblical way of referring to the ungodly worldview and lifestyle thatcharacterize human life in its rebellion against the Creator. Thecourse of the world is profoundly affected by fallen humans, throughwhom death came into the world and rules over it (Rom. 5:12).Therefore, Paul can claim that “the whole world” hasbecome guilty before God (Rom. 3:19), and even the created world isaffected by such rebellion (8:20–22). Paul especially links“this world” with “this age” (1Cor.3:19; 5:10; Eph. 2:2 NET), which God has judged (Rom. 3:6). Johndeclares that Satan is the “prince of this world” (John12:31; 14:30; 16:11). Paul refers to Satan as the “god of thisworld” (2Cor. 4:4 ESV, NRSV, NASB), who is able to blindindividuals to the truth and who animates human rebellion (Eph. 2:2).In this sense, God and the world are strictly separate: “Don’tyou know that friendship with the world means enmity against God?Therefore, anyone who chooses to be a friend of the world becomes anenemy of God” (James 4:4). Because of this call to an exclusiverelationship with God, believers are mandated to resist and evenconfront the world. Followers of Christ must not be taken captive byphilosophy or the “elemental spiritual forces of this world”(Col. 2:8, 20), since, as Paul says, “the worldhas beencrucified to me, and I to the world” (Gal. 6:14).
Butit is the world that designates the location and object of God’ssaving activity. Indeed, God sent his Son into this world in order toreconcile it to himself (2Cor. 5:19). Jesus, the sacrificialLamb of God, “takes away the sins of the world” (John1:29). Out of love for this world, God sent his Son (John 3:1), notto judge it but to save it: “God did not send his Son into theworld to condemn the world, but to save the world through him”(John 3:17).
Althoughbelievers live in the world (1Cor. 5:10; Phil. 2:15) and musthave dealings with the world, ultimately they are not of the world(John 17:14). Remaining in Christ, believers are able to demonstratein the world the belief and practice of the new commandment to love(John 13:34; 15:9). Therefore, Christians must maintain a criticaldistance from the world’s system: “Do not love the worldor anythingin the world. If anyone loves the world, love forthe Father is not in them. For everything inthe world—thelust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life—comesnot from the Father but from the world” (1John 2:15–16[cf. James 1:27; 4:4]). Believers are to avoid the seductive power ofthe world and not abandon themselves to it; they are to follow theirLord in proclaiming God’s project of reconciling the world tohimself through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (2Cor.5:18).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
2 Corinthians 4:1-18
is mentioned in the definition.
The age to come is the time when Christ will return andestablish his kingdom in all its fullness and glory. The Jews livingin intertestamental times experienced great persecution andsufferings and looked ahead in hope and anticipation to a futurecoming age of a messiah, with all its associated blessings. Both Johnthe Baptist and Jesus pointed to how this new age had already drawnnear with their message: “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven hascome near” (Matt. 3:2; 4:17). Jesus taught that “thekingdom of God has come upon you” during his earthly ministry(Matt. 12:28), and he promised that anyone who has been born againcan “see” or “enter” the kingdom right then(using present-tense verbs in John 3:3, 5). At the same time, Jesuswas equally clear that the kingdom had not come in all its fullnessduring his earthly ministry, and he instructed his disciples tocontinue to look ahead and pray specifically, “your kingdomcome” (Matt. 6:10). Consequently, many have described thekingdom as being both “already” and “not yet”in the sense that God’s kingdom has already begun with Christ’sfirst coming, even though the fullness of the kingdom still lies inthe future. Thus, in one sense “the age to come” beganwith Jesus’ earthly ministry, especially his death andresurrection. Peter could also describe the giving of the Holy Spiriton Pentecost as taking place in “the last days” (Acts2:17), thus marking the beginning of the age to come. Consequently,believers find themselves living in the tension between alreadyexperiencing the transforming power of a new life in Christ and stillliving in what the Bible elsewhere describes as “the presentevil age” (Gal. 1:4) under the power of Satan as “the godof this age” (2 Cor. 4:4). The challenge for believers isto look ahead by faith and “lay up treasure for themselves as afirm foundation for the coming age” (1 Tim. 6:19), whenChrist will return and fully establish his kingdom. See also Advent,Second; Eschatology; Second Coming.
The study of human beings, their nature and origins. TheChristian understanding of anthropology stems from a biblical view ofhumankind’s relationship to God.
TheOrigin of Humankind
Accordingto Genesis, the creation of humankind took place on the sixth day ofthe creation week. The amount of narrative space allotted to this day(Gen. 1:24–31) testifies to the special importance of whathappened. Human beings were made on the same day as the animals.Human beings were not given a day of their own, showing that theyhave a certain kinship with the animals, although they are far morethan highly successful and adaptive mammals. This has implicationsfor the care of animals and of the environment generally. The valueof human beings and their special place in the created order is clearin passages such as Pss. 8:5–6; 104:14–15.
Createdin the image of God.Whenit came to the making of human beings, God deliberated over thiscrucial step (Gen. 1:26). The plural of exhortation in “Let usmake man in our image” signals that the decision to makehumankind was the most important one that God had made so far.Genesis 1 says that human beings are like God in some way.
Variousopinions have been canvassed as to what the “image” is.We cannot totally exclude the physical form of humans, given God’shumanoid form in OT appearances (theophanies; e.g., Isa. 6:1; Ezek.1:26; Amos 9:1). The image has sometimes been interpreted as a task,the exercising of dominion (Gen. 1:28), with humanity appointed ascreation’s king, ruling under God. But the image is betterunderstood as the precondition for rule rather than rule itself. Theimage shows human worth (Gen. 9:6) and differentiates humans from allother creatures. It is proper for the Bible to use anthropomorphiclanguage for God, for humans are remarkably like God. Both male andfemale are in the image of God (“in the image of God he createdthem; male and female he created them” [1:27]), so that thedivine image is not maleness, nor is sexual differentiation theimage. Commonly, the image of God is thought to be some peculiarquality of human beings—for example, rationality, speech, moralsense, personality, humans as relational beings.
Everycentury has its own view of what is the essence of humanity. However,nothing in the passage allows a choice among such alternatives. Thepoint of the passage is simply the fact of the likeness, with noexact definition being provided. The fact of the image is the basisof the divine prohibition of murder and of the strict penalty appliedto the transgressor (9:4–6). The fall into sin affected everyaspect of the human constitution, and the Bible does not minimize thefact of human sinfulness (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Rom. 3:10–18);nevertheless, humans are still in the image of God (Gen. 5:1–3;9:6; 1 Cor. 11:7). God’s plan of salvation is aimed atridding creation (and especially humanity) of the baneful effects ofsin, and this will be achieved through the work of Christ, who is theimage of God (2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15–20; Heb. 1:1–3;2:5–18). The outcome will be the conformity of believers inChrist to his glorious image (Rom. 8:29–30; 2 Cor. 3.18).
Placein the created order.God’s purpose in giving human beings the divine image is “sothey may rule” (NET [Gen. 1:26b translated as a purposeclause]). The syntax suggests that the image is a presupposition ofdominion. It is plain that such a delegated authority makes humansstewards. The vegetarian diet of Gen.1:29 (there was no eating ofmeat at first) represents a limitation to the human right ofdominion. Adam’s naming of the animals was (in part) expressiveof his sovereignty over them (2:19). Later, Noah was charged to bringpairs of animals into the ark to preserve them alive (6:19–20),showing care for other creatures. The patriarchs tended flocks(13:2–9; 26:12–14), and Joseph’s relief measuressaved the lives of people and animals (47:15–18). The wantondestruction of the Promised Land was expressly forbidden (Deut.20:19–20). Humanity is accountable to God for the stewardshipof the earth. The divine command “be fruitful and multiply”(Gen. 1:28 NRSV) shows that God’s purpose is that the humanrace populate the whole earth.
AtGen. 2:7 the biblical narrative becomes thoroughly anthropocentric,picturing the little world that God establishes around the first man,so this account is quite different from the cosmic presentation ofGen. 1. In Gen. 1 humankind is the apex of a pyramid, the last andhighest of a series of creatures; in Gen. 2 the man is the center ofa circle, everything else made to fit around him, and his connectionto the physical earth is emphasized. In either view, a very specialplace is given to human beings in the created order. The two picturesare complementary, not contradictory.
The“man” (’adam) is formed from the “ground”(’adamah), with the related Hebrew words making a pun. Man’sname reminds him of his earthy origins. He is made from the “dust,”which hints at his coming death. He will return to the dust (Gen.3:19; cf. Job 10:8–9; Ps. 103:14; Isa. 29:16). The reference to“the breath of life” (Gen. 2:7) is due to the fact thatthis leaves a person at death (Job 34:14–15; Ps. 104:29–30),so man’s (potential) mortality is implied. Ironically, themaking of man is described using the language of death. What isdescribed in Gen. 2 is the making of the first man, from whom therest of the human race has descended, not the making of humankind,though the word ’adam can mean that in other contexts.
TheNature of Humankind
Body,soul, and spirit.Arguments over whether human nature is bipartite (body and soul) ortripartite (body, soul, spirit) are not to be decided by arbitraryappeal to isolated verses. Verses can be found in apparent supportfor both the first view (e.g., Matt. 10:28) and the second (e.g.,1 Thess. 5:23), but certainly the first scheme is much moreprevalent in the Bible. “Soul” and “spirit”can be used interchangeably (Eccles. 3:21; 12:7; Ezek. 18:31). Deathis marked by the parting of soul/spirit and body, but it would be amistake to think that human beings are made up of separate componentparts, or that the physical body is only a dispensable shell and notessential to true humanity. The physicality of human existence in the“body” is owned and celebrated in Scripture, part of thatbeing the positive attitude to sexuality when properly expressed(Song of Songs; 1 Cor. 7) and the nonascetic nature of biblicalethics (1 Cor. 10:31; Col. 2:23). The doctrine of theresurrection of the body is the fullest expression of this (1 Cor.15), in contrast to ancient Greek thought that viewed the body asinherently evil and understood salvation as the immortality of theliberated, disembodied soul.
Thedifferent words used in relation to persons are only intended torefer to and at times focus on different aspects of unified humannature. References to the “soul” may stress individualresponsibility (e.g., Ezek. 18:4 NASB: “The soul who sins willdie”). In Ps. 103:1–2, “O my soul” expressesemphatic self-encouragement to praise God and is in parallel with“all my inmost being”—that is, “my wholebeing” (an example of synecdoche: a part standing for the whole[cf. Ps. 35:10]). These are ways of referring to oneself as a personwho expresses will and intention (cf. Ps. 42:5–6, 11). The“flesh” is used to stress the weakness of mortal humanity(e.g., Isa. 40:6 RSV: “All flesh is grass”). The “heart”is the volitional center of a human being (Prov. 4:23; cf. Mark7:17–23). The emotional and empathetic reactions of humans aredescribed by reference to the organs: “liver,” “kidneys,”“bowels.”
Moralsand responsibility.In Gen. 2 the complexities of the man’s moral relation to Godand his relations with the soil, with the animals, and with the womanare explored. God deposited the man in the garden “to work itand take care of it” (2:15). The words chosen to designate theman’s work prior to the fall have an aura of worship aboutthem, for they are later used in the OT for the cultic actions ofserving and guarding within the sanctuary. The priests served byoffering sacrifices, and the Levites guarded the gates of the sacredprecinct. A theology of work as a religious vocation is presented.The man was a kind of king-priest in the garden of God.
Themoral responsibility of humanity is signaled from the beginning.God’s command gives permission for the man to eat from “anytree” except one (Gen. 2:16–17) and as such indicatesman’s freedom, so that this command is no great restriction.The wording “you are free to eat” reinforces the pointabout God’s generous provision. The prohibition is embedded inthe description of God’s fatherly care for the man and graciousact in placing him in the garden. The divine restriction is slightand not at all overbearing, though the serpent will seek to make itappear mean-spirited (3:1). The command and prohibition are the veryfirst words of God to the man, marking them out as of fundamentalimportance for the relationship between them. The prohibition (“youmust not eat . . .”) is an absolute one in thestyle of the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1–17; Deut. 5:6–21).What is placed before the man is a test that gives him theopportunity to express his loyalty to God. A relationship ofobedience and trust requires the possibility of choice and theopportunity to disobey (if that is what he wants to do). The moralnature and responsibility of individuals is not a late discovery bythe prophet Ezekiel (Ezek. 18); rather, it is the presuppositionbehind the Mosaic law, for the commands of the Decalogue (“youshall not . . .”) are phrased as commands toindividuals (as the Hebrew makes clear). On the other hand, theconcept of corporate responsibility is also present (e.g., Achan’spunishment in Josh. 7).
Relationships.Human beings are relational by nature, as the creation of the womanas a helper and partner for the first man makes plain (Gen. 2:18–25).Later in Scripture this is put in more general terms, so thatfriendship and mutual cooperation are shown to be essential to life(Eccles. 4:7–12). The body life of the church reflects the samefact and need (1 Cor. 12). In Psalms, human needs andvulnerability find their answer and fulfillment in God, with thepsalmist acknowledging his frailty and his creaturely dependence onGod (e.g., Ps. 90). This also shows the folly of sinful human pride,against which the prophets so often inveighed (e.g., Isa. 2:9,11–17, 22).
Occuring in the Bible only once (2 Cor. 6:15 [NRSV:“Beliar”]), “Belial” (Gk. Beliar) has amythological connotation in the OT associated with Sheol, chaos, anddeath (Heb. beliyya’al [2 Sam. 22:5; Ps. 18:4; cf. Ps.41:8]), and it could also mean “worthlessness,” “ruin,”or “wickedness” (1 Sam. 25:25). The term is widelyattested in Second Temple Jewish literature, especially in the DSS,referring to God’s archenemy, whose domain is darkness andwhose counsel is wickedness (Mart. Isa. 1:8–9; 2:4; 4:2; T. Dan1:7; 1QM 1:1–3, 13–15; 13:11; cf. 1QS 2:19; CD-A4:12–19). Paul employs this conviction to show that theeschatological conflict is between Christ, who is the light, andBelial, who is the darkness (2 Cor. 6:15; cf. 2 Cor. 4:4).
Occuring in the Bible only once (2 Cor. 6:15 [NRSV:“Beliar”]), “Belial” (Gk. Beliar) has amythological connotation in the OT associated with Sheol, chaos, anddeath (Heb. beliyya’al [2 Sam. 22:5; Ps. 18:4; cf. Ps.41:8]), and it could also mean “worthlessness,” “ruin,”or “wickedness” (1 Sam. 25:25). The term is widelyattested in Second Temple Jewish literature, especially in the DSS,referring to God’s archenemy, whose domain is darkness andwhose counsel is wickedness (Mart. Isa. 1:8–9; 2:4; 4:2; T. Dan1:7; 1QM 1:1–3, 13–15; 13:11; cf. 1QS 2:19; CD-A4:12–19). Paul employs this conviction to show that theeschatological conflict is between Christ, who is the light, andBelial, who is the darkness (2 Cor. 6:15; cf. 2 Cor. 4:4).
Dangerous teachers disguised as faithful gospel ministers. In2Cor. 11:5 Paul ironically calls a group of false teachers inthe Corinthian churches “super-apostles.” These deceiversare “false apostles” (11:13) who, like Satan, pretend tobe servants of righteousness (11:14–15) in order to deceiveGod’s people.
Thefalse apostles in Corinth taught a threefold error: a false Christ, afalse spirit, and a false gospel. The exact nature of the falsegospel that they preached is uncertain, but it led Christians awayfrom true devotion to Christ (2Cor. 11:3). Their gospeldepicted not a humbled and crucified Lord (see 1Cor. 1:17–31)but rather a Christ who gave his followers exalted knowledge,supposedly making them superior to normal Christians (2Cor.11:6).
Thefalse apostles of Corinth were likely of Jewish origin (2Cor.11:22), and thus they may have taught something similar to theheresies afflicting the churches addressed in Galatians andPhilippians (see Gal. 2:4; Phil. 3:2–6). These preachers useddeception (2Cor. 4:2; 11:13) and were domineering (11:20)rather than meek and gentle like Christ (10:1; 13:4). Because oftheir skill in public speaking, the false apostles were popularaccording to the standards of that day, which often valuedpersuasiveness over truth (10:1–2). Paul was mocked because hedid not speak with the eloquence and fluency of his opponents (see10:10). Nonetheless, Paul’s boast was in the success of thegospel among his hearers (10:8, 12–18) and in his own weakness,which highlighted the power of God (11:16–12:10).
Revelation2:2 speaks of false apostles who may have been the Nicolaitansmentioned in Rev. 2:6. John praises the church at Ephesus forrefusing to tolerate the teachings of these false apostles.
At creation, God made human beings to depend on him to revealhis purposes, so that their response to life would always involvetrust in, and loving obedience to, his counsel. The entrance of sincreated a barrier between people and God. Fallen humanity, in itsautonomy, seeks to understand the world apart from knowledge of God(1Cor. 2:14).
InScripture, ignorance frequently refers to one’s inability tounderstand who God is or one’s true identity and purpose (Eph.4:18). In ignorance, humanity disregards God’s revelation (Rom.1:22–25). The darkened, idolatrous heart is the source of humanblindness (Jer. 17:9; Ezek. 14:2–3). Satan holds people captivein blindness (2Cor. 4:4). God revealed himself throughprophetic messengers, but throughout the OT, God’s peopledisregarded their message. Although God raised up judges to lead hispeople, they repeatedly reverted to idolatry: “In those daysIsrael had no king; everyone did as they saw fit” (Judg.21:25).
Jesusis the true light, which gives light to every person (John 1:9). Yetpeople loved darkness and would not come into the light for fear thattheir deeds would be exposed (John 3:20). However, through the Word,the Spirit can transform the hearts of people such as Paul, whoformerly opposed Christ and his church in ignorance and unbelief(1Tim. 1:13).
Ignorance,however, does not always entail sin. Our finitude implies that ourknowledge will always be limited. God has appointed teachers tofacilitate our growth in understanding (Eph. 4:11–12).
The moral course of the world is simultaneously moving in twodirections. The morally innocent state in which God created humankindwas lost at the fall (Gen.3), and since then, sin, death, andcorruption have reigned over all humanity (Rom. 5:12). In Noah’stime the world so declined morally that God had to wipe out nearlythe entire human race (Gen. 6–8), and the Bible predicts thatsin will come to a similar crescendo before Christ’s return(1Tim. 4:1; 2Pet. 3).
Despitethis moral degeneration, the kingdom that Christ inaugurated in hisfirst coming (Mark 1:15) will make continual progress in renewingcreation until the consummation (Matt. 13:31–33). The newheavens and earth have already broken into the present age at theresurrection of Christ, who is now ruling at the right hand of theFather (Acts 2:33). Therefore, the age subject to death is passingaway, but those in Christ are being renewed daily (1Cor. 7:31;2Cor. 4:16). The Holy Spirit represents their down payment onthe riches that await them at the final redemption (Eph. 1:14).
The age to come is the time when Christ will return andestablish his kingdom in all its fullness and glory. The Jews livingin intertestamental times experienced great persecution andsufferings and looked ahead in hope and anticipation to a futurecoming age of a messiah, with all its associated blessings. Both Johnthe Baptist and Jesus pointed to how this new age had already drawnnear with their message: “Repent, for the kingdom of heaven hascome near” (Matt. 3:2; 4:17). Jesus taught that “thekingdom of God has come upon you” during his earthly ministry(Matt. 12:28), and he promised that anyone who has been born againcan “see” or “enter” the kingdom right then(using present-tense verbs in John 3:3, 5). At the same time, Jesuswas equally clear that the kingdom had not come in all its fullnessduring his earthly ministry, and he instructed his disciples tocontinue to look ahead and pray specifically, “your kingdomcome” (Matt. 6:10). Consequently, many have described thekingdom as being both “already” and “not yet”in the sense that God’s kingdom has already begun with Christ’sfirst coming, even though the fullness of the kingdom still lies inthe future. Thus, in one sense “the age to come” beganwith Jesus’ earthly ministry, especially his death andresurrection. Peter could also describe the giving of the Holy Spiriton Pentecost as taking place in “the last days” (Acts2:17), thus marking the beginning of the age to come. Consequently,believers find themselves living in the tension between alreadyexperiencing the transforming power of a new life in Christ and stillliving in what the Bible elsewhere describes as “the presentevil age” (Gal. 1:4) under the power of Satan as “the godof this age” (2 Cor. 4:4). The challenge for believers isto look ahead by faith and “lay up treasure for themselves as afirm foundation for the coming age” (1 Tim. 6:19), whenChrist will return and fully establish his kingdom. See also Advent,Second; Eschatology; Second Coming.
Potteryin the Bible
TheBible contains numerous references to pottery, pottery making, andpotters. Clay pottery was the most common and easiest way to cookfood and to carry liquids throughout biblical times. Only pots usedfor very special occasions and locations (such as the temple) weremade out of a material (usually some metal) other than clay (Exod.38:3). Clay was the preferable material because it was freelyobtained, easy to manipulate, and required little technology to make.The downside of pottery is that it is easily broken and thus rendereduseless. Evidence of the abundance and affordability of pottery isseen in the instructions to break ceremonially unclean pottery ratherthan wash it (Lev. 15:12). Although cooking was the primary purposefor pottery, it could be used for a variety of applications,including storing items, carrying water, making lamps, and formingidols.
Potteryand the manufacture of pottery occasionally took on symbolicconnotations in the Bible. For example, in the psalms broken potterysymbolizes the life of the psalmist as he cries to God for help (Ps.31:12). In another psalm the psalmist envisions God destroying thenations that plot against God like someone who shatters pottery(2:9). Isaiah likens Egypt’s strength, in which Judah trustsmore than in God, to pottery ready to be shattered (Isa. 30:14).Similarly, Jeremiah says that the leaders of Judah will be punishedand will “fall and be shattered like fine pottery” (Jer.25:34 NIV mg.). Isaiah also uses several other metaphors related topottery. He says that God treads on rulers like a potter treads onclay, getting it soft and prepared for making pottery (Isa. 41:25).Isaiah also likens those who complain to God to pieces of brokenpottery trying to tell the potter how to make pots (45:9).
BothIsaiah and Jeremiah liken people to clay in God’s hand. Isaiahsays, “We are the clay, you are the potter; we are all the workof your hand” (Isa. 64:8). Jeremiah says essentially the samething, but instead of using Isaiah’s positive tone, he sees thehuman molding process to be a difficult and dangerous one that canresult in the potter rejecting the creation (Jer. 18:1–10).Jeremiah buys a pot, takes it to a gate in the city, the PotsherdGate (a potsherd is a broken and useless piece of pottery), andsmashes the pot symbolically to demonstrate how God feels about Judah(Jer. 19). Jeremiah’s choice of the Potsherd Gate was also partof the symbolism, as it is likely that most of the pottery inJerusalem was made near or at the Potsherd Gate. The apostle Paulcreates a similar metaphor, describing how a potter is able to takethe same lump of clay and make different kinds of pots, some of whichhave special uses, and others common uses. Paul implies that God hasthe right to determine how and for what purpose he creates humansbecause he is like the potter with the clay (Rom. 9:21). Paul alsorefers to humans as clay jars with treasure in them (2Cor.4:7).
Inanother example, after the destruction of Jerusalem the people incaptivity lament that they are simply like earthen pots before God(Lam. 4:2), suggesting that they are ready to receive the punishmentthat God has chosen for them to endure. Job also wonders if God hasmolded him like clay only then to turn him back into dust (Job 10:9).
Manufactureof Pottery
Preparingthe clay.Before any pottery can be made, the clay must be gathered andprepared for use. Clay collected from different geographical areaswill have different levels of pure clay and other earthen materials.Pure clay is very difficult to work with, but it produces some of thesmoothest and strongest pots. Most of the clay used in Palestine wasnot of superior quality, and so most often imperfections developed inthe pots as they were being made. We also know that during the timeof the late monarchy, potters in Israel tended to mix clay withdifferent kinds of sand to produce better results. With today’sadvanced forensic technology, it often can be determined where theclay used to make a pot was harvested. Because it was generallyimpractical to transport clay any long distance, this sort ofanalysis can also be helpful in determining the origin of the pot.Once the clay was harvested, depending on its quality and use, it wasoften necessary to prepare the clay by kneading or treading it. Thisprocess was vital for removing any impurities in the clay as well asmaking it malleable.
Shaping.Historically, the first pottery molded was made by hand and dried inthe sun. Nothing is known about the role of these early potters andwhether they were highly regarded in society. Many scholars believethat early pottery was made by women, to be used for very practicalpurposes such as cooking and carrying water. It is fairly easy todetermine the gender of the potter by measuring the natural hand andfinger marks left in the clay and comparing their size inrelationship to the average size of both men’s and women’shands. These rudimentary pots usually were made by laying coils ofclay one upon another.
Althoughit is not certain, the profession of being a potter likely did notdevelop until the invention of the potter’s wheel. The potter’swheel allowed the potter to create more-sophisticated pottery andalso gave the potter the ability to mass-produce pots. Severalexamples of potter’s wheels have been excavated dating toaround 3500–3000 BC in Sumer and Ur. Most potter’s wheelsduring biblical times consisted of two wheels. A larger and heavierwheel was placed close to the ground, with a pole in the center ofthis wheel going up to a second, smaller, and lighter wheel supportedby a table. The potter used his or her foot to move the larger wheel,which turned the smaller wheel. It is also possible that anapprentice turned the larger wheel. As the technology developed,sometimes two potter’s wheels were connected to one largerwheel so that two pots could be created at the same time.
Anothermethod for making clay items was the use of press molds. Press moldswere used to fashion clay by pushing the clay into the mold and thenallowing it to dry. As the clay dried, it shrank and pulled away fromthe mold and could easily be removed from the mold. This method wasused for molding figurines (most often used as household idols) andsmall oil lamps, which often were made of two molded pieces fusedtogether.
Decoratingand firing.Once a pot was finished being shaped, either on a wheel or in a mold,it often was decorated. The pot often was painted with pigment madefrom earth. Different painting styles can help in identifying a pot’splace of origin. Another common decoration method was to imprint thepot with different seals, symbols, or patterns. This was done byusing a wooden or metal tool and pressing it into the wet clay.Examples of this method include several pots found at Gibeon stampedwith what appear to be royal seals, which likely indicate that thepots and their contents belonged to the king. Much of the potteryfrom in and around Jerusalem has a red burnish applied to seal thepot and to add a smooth finish to the outside. By the time of themonarchy, potters were very sophisticated in their choice ofmaterials and often had some of the materials, such as special sands,imported from a considerable distance. These sands added to thesmoothness of the fired pot by creating a glaze on it.
Oncethe decoration of the pot was finished, the pot was dried in order toreveal any imperfections. If any imperfections were observed duringdrying, the pot was discarded. If no imperfections were seen, the potwas then fired. Depending on the potter’s resources and thetechnology the potter knew, the firing process could be as simple asplacing the pot in a hot fire or could include the use ofsophisticated kilns capable of producing extremely high and evenheat. Firing a pot was extremely difficult, because ideally the heatis kept at a constant temperature throughout the process, which wasnot an easy task when using an open flame for the heating source.Because the process of firing pots was a well-guarded trade secret,we know few details of how pots were fired during biblical times.
Typesof Pottery
Thereare several general categories of pottery, which are based on theircharacteristics and intended uses. Of course, for some extantexamples of pottery from archaeological digs, their usage cannot bedetermined. Tableware included cups, plates, bowls, and jugs. Theseitems tended to be more decorated than other pottery, much liketableware today tends to be more decorative than cooking pots.Cooking pots included pots with small, narrow rims and flat, openpans for frying and uncovered cooking. Storage vessels came in allsizes: pithoi, jars (two-handled), jugs (one-handled), smaller jugs(with no handles), and very small vessels for perfumes and othervaluable liquids. Also, it is not unusual to find various sizes oflamps.
Importanceof Pottery for Archaeology
Potteryhas become an important dating tool for archaeologists. While writtentexts do provide more archaeological data than pottery and religiousor cultural artifacts can be more visually interesting, it is potterythat helps the archaeologist piece all the information together.
Historyof dating pottery. Whiledoing archaeological work in Egypt, Flinders Petrie noticed that fordifferent time periods of Egyptian history there were different kindsof pottery, with very distinct and identifiable characteristics.These identifiable pottery characteristics included things such asthe thickness of the wall of the pot, the type of rim or lip on thepot, the pot’s handles, and any special decorative elements.These characteristics, Petrie discovered, could be used to date sitesthat had no other dating information. Petrie carefully logged eachpiece of pottery found at each site and over time developed anextensive catalog of pottery types and their respective dating.Later, while digging at Tell el-Hesi in Palestine, Petrie noticedthat each layer, or stratum, of the tell (archaeological mound) had adifferent type of pottery, much like the different kinds of potteryhe had noticed in Egypt. Because of his careful and painstaking workin Egypt, Petrie also noticed that the different types of pottery inPalestine were similar to those that he had uncovered in Egypt. As aresult, Petrie was able to develop a chronology of pottery that couldbe used to date different archaeological digs and strata in theentire ancient Near East. Later, W.F. Albright expanded onPetrie’s work by adding several sublayers and further refiningthe dating of each time period of pottery.
Tohelp explain this significant discovery, L.E. Stager uses theexample of how bottles for soft drinks have changed over the years.For example, he notes that when soda bottles were firstmass-marketed, the writing on the bottle was part of the glass withraised letters. Over time the bottle changed and evolved; differenttypes of writing were used on glass bottles until ultimately thebottles were smooth and the words were painted on them. In morerecent years soda bottles have been made of plastic. This evolutionof the soda bottle can roughly illustrate the changes in pottery overtime. Because this method of dating depends on a catalog ofdocumented pottery, it requires that all pottery found, no matter howinsignificant, be cataloged and recorded so that others can comparethe pottery finds from one place with those in other places.
Timeperiods.In the dating of ancient Near Eastern pottery, history is dividedinto broad time periods that are then further subdivided. The MiddleBronze Age (c. 2200–1550 BC) encompasses the time of theearliest biblical stories, including perhaps the stories of thepatriarchs. During this period and the Early Bronze Age (c. 3300–2200BC), the artisanship evident in the pottery was limited, and pots hadlittle or no decoration; however, the skill applied to the vesselshad improved dramatically from the prior period, the Chalcolithic(4500–3300 BC). These vessels show thin walls and evidence ofmass production.
TheLate Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC), which likely includes thetime of Moses and perhaps Joshua, shows an unusual and dramaticdecrease in the quality of local Canaanite pottery. There is no knownexplanation for this deterioration, but it is evident. At the sametime, pottery from other coastal regions, especially Mycenaean Greeceand Crete, is very common, and pots from these locations are quitesophisticated and highly decorated. This indicates that during thistime there was a strong cultural influence from these areas. Somehave suggested that this is due to the colonization of parts ofPalestine by the Sea Peoples, who perhaps are the Philistines ofbiblical history.
TheIron Age (c. 1200–586 BC), which encompasses the time periodfrom the Israelite conquest and settlement through the monarchy,demonstrates more low-quality pottery, especially early in thisperiod. In contrast with the examples of pottery manufactured locallyat Israelite sites, Philistine pottery is quite sophisticated, highlydecorated with red and black duotones in geometric patterns. Thelater pottery of the monarchy shows much more skill andsophistication.
ThePersian (539–332 BC), Hellenistic (332–63 BC), and Romanperiods (after 63 BC) conclude the biblical periods. Each of theseperiods is dominated by the aesthetics and quality of the invadingcountries’ pottery. By this time, trade routes were stronglyestablished, and so the invaders, it appears, flooded the marketswith their pottery, often to the detriment of the local potters.
Potteryin the Bible
TheBible contains numerous references to pottery, pottery making, andpotters. Clay pottery was the most common and easiest way to cookfood and to carry liquids throughout biblical times. Only pots usedfor very special occasions and locations (such as the temple) weremade out of a material (usually some metal) other than clay (Exod.38:3). Clay was the preferable material because it was freelyobtained, easy to manipulate, and required little technology to make.The downside of pottery is that it is easily broken and thus rendereduseless. Evidence of the abundance and affordability of pottery isseen in the instructions to break ceremonially unclean pottery ratherthan wash it (Lev. 15:12). Although cooking was the primary purposefor pottery, it could be used for a variety of applications,including storing items, carrying water, making lamps, and formingidols.
Potteryand the manufacture of pottery occasionally took on symbolicconnotations in the Bible. For example, in the psalms broken potterysymbolizes the life of the psalmist as he cries to God for help (Ps.31:12). In another psalm the psalmist envisions God destroying thenations that plot against God like someone who shatters pottery(2:9). Isaiah likens Egypt’s strength, in which Judah trustsmore than in God, to pottery ready to be shattered (Isa. 30:14).Similarly, Jeremiah says that the leaders of Judah will be punishedand will “fall and be shattered like fine pottery” (Jer.25:34 NIV mg.). Isaiah also uses several other metaphors related topottery. He says that God treads on rulers like a potter treads onclay, getting it soft and prepared for making pottery (Isa. 41:25).Isaiah also likens those who complain to God to pieces of brokenpottery trying to tell the potter how to make pots (45:9).
BothIsaiah and Jeremiah liken people to clay in God’s hand. Isaiahsays, “We are the clay, you are the potter; we are all the workof your hand” (Isa. 64:8). Jeremiah says essentially the samething, but instead of using Isaiah’s positive tone, he sees thehuman molding process to be a difficult and dangerous one that canresult in the potter rejecting the creation (Jer. 18:1–10).Jeremiah buys a pot, takes it to a gate in the city, the PotsherdGate (a potsherd is a broken and useless piece of pottery), andsmashes the pot symbolically to demonstrate how God feels about Judah(Jer. 19). Jeremiah’s choice of the Potsherd Gate was also partof the symbolism, as it is likely that most of the pottery inJerusalem was made near or at the Potsherd Gate. The apostle Paulcreates a similar metaphor, describing how a potter is able to takethe same lump of clay and make different kinds of pots, some of whichhave special uses, and others common uses. Paul implies that God hasthe right to determine how and for what purpose he creates humansbecause he is like the potter with the clay (Rom. 9:21). Paul alsorefers to humans as clay jars with treasure in them (2Cor.4:7).
Inanother example, after the destruction of Jerusalem the people incaptivity lament that they are simply like earthen pots before God(Lam. 4:2), suggesting that they are ready to receive the punishmentthat God has chosen for them to endure. Job also wonders if God hasmolded him like clay only then to turn him back into dust (Job 10:9).
Manufactureof Pottery
Preparingthe clay.Before any pottery can be made, the clay must be gathered andprepared for use. Clay collected from different geographical areaswill have different levels of pure clay and other earthen materials.Pure clay is very difficult to work with, but it produces some of thesmoothest and strongest pots. Most of the clay used in Palestine wasnot of superior quality, and so most often imperfections developed inthe pots as they were being made. We also know that during the timeof the late monarchy, potters in Israel tended to mix clay withdifferent kinds of sand to produce better results. With today’sadvanced forensic technology, it often can be determined where theclay used to make a pot was harvested. Because it was generallyimpractical to transport clay any long distance, this sort ofanalysis can also be helpful in determining the origin of the pot.Once the clay was harvested, depending on its quality and use, it wasoften necessary to prepare the clay by kneading or treading it. Thisprocess was vital for removing any impurities in the clay as well asmaking it malleable.
Shaping.Historically, the first pottery molded was made by hand and dried inthe sun. Nothing is known about the role of these early potters andwhether they were highly regarded in society. Many scholars believethat early pottery was made by women, to be used for very practicalpurposes such as cooking and carrying water. It is fairly easy todetermine the gender of the potter by measuring the natural hand andfinger marks left in the clay and comparing their size inrelationship to the average size of both men’s and women’shands. These rudimentary pots usually were made by laying coils ofclay one upon another.
Althoughit is not certain, the profession of being a potter likely did notdevelop until the invention of the potter’s wheel. The potter’swheel allowed the potter to create more-sophisticated pottery andalso gave the potter the ability to mass-produce pots. Severalexamples of potter’s wheels have been excavated dating toaround 3500–3000 BC in Sumer and Ur. Most potter’s wheelsduring biblical times consisted of two wheels. A larger and heavierwheel was placed close to the ground, with a pole in the center ofthis wheel going up to a second, smaller, and lighter wheel supportedby a table. The potter used his or her foot to move the larger wheel,which turned the smaller wheel. It is also possible that anapprentice turned the larger wheel. As the technology developed,sometimes two potter’s wheels were connected to one largerwheel so that two pots could be created at the same time.
Anothermethod for making clay items was the use of press molds. Press moldswere used to fashion clay by pushing the clay into the mold and thenallowing it to dry. As the clay dried, it shrank and pulled away fromthe mold and could easily be removed from the mold. This method wasused for molding figurines (most often used as household idols) andsmall oil lamps, which often were made of two molded pieces fusedtogether.
Decoratingand firing.Once a pot was finished being shaped, either on a wheel or in a mold,it often was decorated. The pot often was painted with pigment madefrom earth. Different painting styles can help in identifying a pot’splace of origin. Another common decoration method was to imprint thepot with different seals, symbols, or patterns. This was done byusing a wooden or metal tool and pressing it into the wet clay.Examples of this method include several pots found at Gibeon stampedwith what appear to be royal seals, which likely indicate that thepots and their contents belonged to the king. Much of the potteryfrom in and around Jerusalem has a red burnish applied to seal thepot and to add a smooth finish to the outside. By the time of themonarchy, potters were very sophisticated in their choice ofmaterials and often had some of the materials, such as special sands,imported from a considerable distance. These sands added to thesmoothness of the fired pot by creating a glaze on it.
Oncethe decoration of the pot was finished, the pot was dried in order toreveal any imperfections. If any imperfections were observed duringdrying, the pot was discarded. If no imperfections were seen, the potwas then fired. Depending on the potter’s resources and thetechnology the potter knew, the firing process could be as simple asplacing the pot in a hot fire or could include the use ofsophisticated kilns capable of producing extremely high and evenheat. Firing a pot was extremely difficult, because ideally the heatis kept at a constant temperature throughout the process, which wasnot an easy task when using an open flame for the heating source.Because the process of firing pots was a well-guarded trade secret,we know few details of how pots were fired during biblical times.
Typesof Pottery
Thereare several general categories of pottery, which are based on theircharacteristics and intended uses. Of course, for some extantexamples of pottery from archaeological digs, their usage cannot bedetermined. Tableware included cups, plates, bowls, and jugs. Theseitems tended to be more decorated than other pottery, much liketableware today tends to be more decorative than cooking pots.Cooking pots included pots with small, narrow rims and flat, openpans for frying and uncovered cooking. Storage vessels came in allsizes: pithoi, jars (two-handled), jugs (one-handled), smaller jugs(with no handles), and very small vessels for perfumes and othervaluable liquids. Also, it is not unusual to find various sizes oflamps.
Importanceof Pottery for Archaeology
Potteryhas become an important dating tool for archaeologists. While writtentexts do provide more archaeological data than pottery and religiousor cultural artifacts can be more visually interesting, it is potterythat helps the archaeologist piece all the information together.
Historyof dating pottery. Whiledoing archaeological work in Egypt, Flinders Petrie noticed that fordifferent time periods of Egyptian history there were different kindsof pottery, with very distinct and identifiable characteristics.These identifiable pottery characteristics included things such asthe thickness of the wall of the pot, the type of rim or lip on thepot, the pot’s handles, and any special decorative elements.These characteristics, Petrie discovered, could be used to date sitesthat had no other dating information. Petrie carefully logged eachpiece of pottery found at each site and over time developed anextensive catalog of pottery types and their respective dating.Later, while digging at Tell el-Hesi in Palestine, Petrie noticedthat each layer, or stratum, of the tell (archaeological mound) had adifferent type of pottery, much like the different kinds of potteryhe had noticed in Egypt. Because of his careful and painstaking workin Egypt, Petrie also noticed that the different types of pottery inPalestine were similar to those that he had uncovered in Egypt. As aresult, Petrie was able to develop a chronology of pottery that couldbe used to date different archaeological digs and strata in theentire ancient Near East. Later, W.F. Albright expanded onPetrie’s work by adding several sublayers and further refiningthe dating of each time period of pottery.
Tohelp explain this significant discovery, L.E. Stager uses theexample of how bottles for soft drinks have changed over the years.For example, he notes that when soda bottles were firstmass-marketed, the writing on the bottle was part of the glass withraised letters. Over time the bottle changed and evolved; differenttypes of writing were used on glass bottles until ultimately thebottles were smooth and the words were painted on them. In morerecent years soda bottles have been made of plastic. This evolutionof the soda bottle can roughly illustrate the changes in pottery overtime. Because this method of dating depends on a catalog ofdocumented pottery, it requires that all pottery found, no matter howinsignificant, be cataloged and recorded so that others can comparethe pottery finds from one place with those in other places.
Timeperiods.In the dating of ancient Near Eastern pottery, history is dividedinto broad time periods that are then further subdivided. The MiddleBronze Age (c. 2200–1550 BC) encompasses the time of theearliest biblical stories, including perhaps the stories of thepatriarchs. During this period and the Early Bronze Age (c. 3300–2200BC), the artisanship evident in the pottery was limited, and pots hadlittle or no decoration; however, the skill applied to the vesselshad improved dramatically from the prior period, the Chalcolithic(4500–3300 BC). These vessels show thin walls and evidence ofmass production.
TheLate Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC), which likely includes thetime of Moses and perhaps Joshua, shows an unusual and dramaticdecrease in the quality of local Canaanite pottery. There is no knownexplanation for this deterioration, but it is evident. At the sametime, pottery from other coastal regions, especially Mycenaean Greeceand Crete, is very common, and pots from these locations are quitesophisticated and highly decorated. This indicates that during thistime there was a strong cultural influence from these areas. Somehave suggested that this is due to the colonization of parts ofPalestine by the Sea Peoples, who perhaps are the Philistines ofbiblical history.
TheIron Age (c. 1200–586 BC), which encompasses the time periodfrom the Israelite conquest and settlement through the monarchy,demonstrates more low-quality pottery, especially early in thisperiod. In contrast with the examples of pottery manufactured locallyat Israelite sites, Philistine pottery is quite sophisticated, highlydecorated with red and black duotones in geometric patterns. Thelater pottery of the monarchy shows much more skill andsophistication.
ThePersian (539–332 BC), Hellenistic (332–63 BC), and Romanperiods (after 63 BC) conclude the biblical periods. Each of theseperiods is dominated by the aesthetics and quality of the invadingcountries’ pottery. By this time, trade routes were stronglyestablished, and so the invaders, it appears, flooded the marketswith their pottery, often to the detriment of the local potters.
Potteryin the Bible
TheBible contains numerous references to pottery, pottery making, andpotters. Clay pottery was the most common and easiest way to cookfood and to carry liquids throughout biblical times. Only pots usedfor very special occasions and locations (such as the temple) weremade out of a material (usually some metal) other than clay (Exod.38:3). Clay was the preferable material because it was freelyobtained, easy to manipulate, and required little technology to make.The downside of pottery is that it is easily broken and thus rendereduseless. Evidence of the abundance and affordability of pottery isseen in the instructions to break ceremonially unclean pottery ratherthan wash it (Lev. 15:12). Although cooking was the primary purposefor pottery, it could be used for a variety of applications,including storing items, carrying water, making lamps, and formingidols.
Potteryand the manufacture of pottery occasionally took on symbolicconnotations in the Bible. For example, in the psalms broken potterysymbolizes the life of the psalmist as he cries to God for help (Ps.31:12). In another psalm the psalmist envisions God destroying thenations that plot against God like someone who shatters pottery(2:9). Isaiah likens Egypt’s strength, in which Judah trustsmore than in God, to pottery ready to be shattered (Isa. 30:14).Similarly, Jeremiah says that the leaders of Judah will be punishedand will “fall and be shattered like fine pottery” (Jer.25:34 NIV mg.). Isaiah also uses several other metaphors related topottery. He says that God treads on rulers like a potter treads onclay, getting it soft and prepared for making pottery (Isa. 41:25).Isaiah also likens those who complain to God to pieces of brokenpottery trying to tell the potter how to make pots (45:9).
BothIsaiah and Jeremiah liken people to clay in God’s hand. Isaiahsays, “We are the clay, you are the potter; we are all the workof your hand” (Isa. 64:8). Jeremiah says essentially the samething, but instead of using Isaiah’s positive tone, he sees thehuman molding process to be a difficult and dangerous one that canresult in the potter rejecting the creation (Jer. 18:1–10).Jeremiah buys a pot, takes it to a gate in the city, the PotsherdGate (a potsherd is a broken and useless piece of pottery), andsmashes the pot symbolically to demonstrate how God feels about Judah(Jer. 19). Jeremiah’s choice of the Potsherd Gate was also partof the symbolism, as it is likely that most of the pottery inJerusalem was made near or at the Potsherd Gate. The apostle Paulcreates a similar metaphor, describing how a potter is able to takethe same lump of clay and make different kinds of pots, some of whichhave special uses, and others common uses. Paul implies that God hasthe right to determine how and for what purpose he creates humansbecause he is like the potter with the clay (Rom. 9:21). Paul alsorefers to humans as clay jars with treasure in them (2Cor.4:7).
Inanother example, after the destruction of Jerusalem the people incaptivity lament that they are simply like earthen pots before God(Lam. 4:2), suggesting that they are ready to receive the punishmentthat God has chosen for them to endure. Job also wonders if God hasmolded him like clay only then to turn him back into dust (Job 10:9).
Manufactureof Pottery
Preparingthe clay.Before any pottery can be made, the clay must be gathered andprepared for use. Clay collected from different geographical areaswill have different levels of pure clay and other earthen materials.Pure clay is very difficult to work with, but it produces some of thesmoothest and strongest pots. Most of the clay used in Palestine wasnot of superior quality, and so most often imperfections developed inthe pots as they were being made. We also know that during the timeof the late monarchy, potters in Israel tended to mix clay withdifferent kinds of sand to produce better results. With today’sadvanced forensic technology, it often can be determined where theclay used to make a pot was harvested. Because it was generallyimpractical to transport clay any long distance, this sort ofanalysis can also be helpful in determining the origin of the pot.Once the clay was harvested, depending on its quality and use, it wasoften necessary to prepare the clay by kneading or treading it. Thisprocess was vital for removing any impurities in the clay as well asmaking it malleable.
Shaping.Historically, the first pottery molded was made by hand and dried inthe sun. Nothing is known about the role of these early potters andwhether they were highly regarded in society. Many scholars believethat early pottery was made by women, to be used for very practicalpurposes such as cooking and carrying water. It is fairly easy todetermine the gender of the potter by measuring the natural hand andfinger marks left in the clay and comparing their size inrelationship to the average size of both men’s and women’shands. These rudimentary pots usually were made by laying coils ofclay one upon another.
Althoughit is not certain, the profession of being a potter likely did notdevelop until the invention of the potter’s wheel. The potter’swheel allowed the potter to create more-sophisticated pottery andalso gave the potter the ability to mass-produce pots. Severalexamples of potter’s wheels have been excavated dating toaround 3500–3000 BC in Sumer and Ur. Most potter’s wheelsduring biblical times consisted of two wheels. A larger and heavierwheel was placed close to the ground, with a pole in the center ofthis wheel going up to a second, smaller, and lighter wheel supportedby a table. The potter used his or her foot to move the larger wheel,which turned the smaller wheel. It is also possible that anapprentice turned the larger wheel. As the technology developed,sometimes two potter’s wheels were connected to one largerwheel so that two pots could be created at the same time.
Anothermethod for making clay items was the use of press molds. Press moldswere used to fashion clay by pushing the clay into the mold and thenallowing it to dry. As the clay dried, it shrank and pulled away fromthe mold and could easily be removed from the mold. This method wasused for molding figurines (most often used as household idols) andsmall oil lamps, which often were made of two molded pieces fusedtogether.
Decoratingand firing.Once a pot was finished being shaped, either on a wheel or in a mold,it often was decorated. The pot often was painted with pigment madefrom earth. Different painting styles can help in identifying a pot’splace of origin. Another common decoration method was to imprint thepot with different seals, symbols, or patterns. This was done byusing a wooden or metal tool and pressing it into the wet clay.Examples of this method include several pots found at Gibeon stampedwith what appear to be royal seals, which likely indicate that thepots and their contents belonged to the king. Much of the potteryfrom in and around Jerusalem has a red burnish applied to seal thepot and to add a smooth finish to the outside. By the time of themonarchy, potters were very sophisticated in their choice ofmaterials and often had some of the materials, such as special sands,imported from a considerable distance. These sands added to thesmoothness of the fired pot by creating a glaze on it.
Oncethe decoration of the pot was finished, the pot was dried in order toreveal any imperfections. If any imperfections were observed duringdrying, the pot was discarded. If no imperfections were seen, the potwas then fired. Depending on the potter’s resources and thetechnology the potter knew, the firing process could be as simple asplacing the pot in a hot fire or could include the use ofsophisticated kilns capable of producing extremely high and evenheat. Firing a pot was extremely difficult, because ideally the heatis kept at a constant temperature throughout the process, which wasnot an easy task when using an open flame for the heating source.Because the process of firing pots was a well-guarded trade secret,we know few details of how pots were fired during biblical times.
Typesof Pottery
Thereare several general categories of pottery, which are based on theircharacteristics and intended uses. Of course, for some extantexamples of pottery from archaeological digs, their usage cannot bedetermined. Tableware included cups, plates, bowls, and jugs. Theseitems tended to be more decorated than other pottery, much liketableware today tends to be more decorative than cooking pots.Cooking pots included pots with small, narrow rims and flat, openpans for frying and uncovered cooking. Storage vessels came in allsizes: pithoi, jars (two-handled), jugs (one-handled), smaller jugs(with no handles), and very small vessels for perfumes and othervaluable liquids. Also, it is not unusual to find various sizes oflamps.
Importanceof Pottery for Archaeology
Potteryhas become an important dating tool for archaeologists. While writtentexts do provide more archaeological data than pottery and religiousor cultural artifacts can be more visually interesting, it is potterythat helps the archaeologist piece all the information together.
Historyof dating pottery. Whiledoing archaeological work in Egypt, Flinders Petrie noticed that fordifferent time periods of Egyptian history there were different kindsof pottery, with very distinct and identifiable characteristics.These identifiable pottery characteristics included things such asthe thickness of the wall of the pot, the type of rim or lip on thepot, the pot’s handles, and any special decorative elements.These characteristics, Petrie discovered, could be used to date sitesthat had no other dating information. Petrie carefully logged eachpiece of pottery found at each site and over time developed anextensive catalog of pottery types and their respective dating.Later, while digging at Tell el-Hesi in Palestine, Petrie noticedthat each layer, or stratum, of the tell (archaeological mound) had adifferent type of pottery, much like the different kinds of potteryhe had noticed in Egypt. Because of his careful and painstaking workin Egypt, Petrie also noticed that the different types of pottery inPalestine were similar to those that he had uncovered in Egypt. As aresult, Petrie was able to develop a chronology of pottery that couldbe used to date different archaeological digs and strata in theentire ancient Near East. Later, W.F. Albright expanded onPetrie’s work by adding several sublayers and further refiningthe dating of each time period of pottery.
Tohelp explain this significant discovery, L.E. Stager uses theexample of how bottles for soft drinks have changed over the years.For example, he notes that when soda bottles were firstmass-marketed, the writing on the bottle was part of the glass withraised letters. Over time the bottle changed and evolved; differenttypes of writing were used on glass bottles until ultimately thebottles were smooth and the words were painted on them. In morerecent years soda bottles have been made of plastic. This evolutionof the soda bottle can roughly illustrate the changes in pottery overtime. Because this method of dating depends on a catalog ofdocumented pottery, it requires that all pottery found, no matter howinsignificant, be cataloged and recorded so that others can comparethe pottery finds from one place with those in other places.
Timeperiods.In the dating of ancient Near Eastern pottery, history is dividedinto broad time periods that are then further subdivided. The MiddleBronze Age (c. 2200–1550 BC) encompasses the time of theearliest biblical stories, including perhaps the stories of thepatriarchs. During this period and the Early Bronze Age (c. 3300–2200BC), the artisanship evident in the pottery was limited, and pots hadlittle or no decoration; however, the skill applied to the vesselshad improved dramatically from the prior period, the Chalcolithic(4500–3300 BC). These vessels show thin walls and evidence ofmass production.
TheLate Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC), which likely includes thetime of Moses and perhaps Joshua, shows an unusual and dramaticdecrease in the quality of local Canaanite pottery. There is no knownexplanation for this deterioration, but it is evident. At the sametime, pottery from other coastal regions, especially Mycenaean Greeceand Crete, is very common, and pots from these locations are quitesophisticated and highly decorated. This indicates that during thistime there was a strong cultural influence from these areas. Somehave suggested that this is due to the colonization of parts ofPalestine by the Sea Peoples, who perhaps are the Philistines ofbiblical history.
TheIron Age (c. 1200–586 BC), which encompasses the time periodfrom the Israelite conquest and settlement through the monarchy,demonstrates more low-quality pottery, especially early in thisperiod. In contrast with the examples of pottery manufactured locallyat Israelite sites, Philistine pottery is quite sophisticated, highlydecorated with red and black duotones in geometric patterns. Thelater pottery of the monarchy shows much more skill andsophistication.
ThePersian (539–332 BC), Hellenistic (332–63 BC), and Romanperiods (after 63 BC) conclude the biblical periods. Each of theseperiods is dominated by the aesthetics and quality of the invadingcountries’ pottery. By this time, trade routes were stronglyestablished, and so the invaders, it appears, flooded the marketswith their pottery, often to the detriment of the local potters.
A technical term for “promise” does not appear inthe OT, but its concept is present throughout Scripture. God unfoldsthe history of redemption by employing the idea of promises. Thewriters of the NT repeatedly assert that Jesus Christ has fulfilledGod’s promises in the OT (e.g., Luke 24:44–48; 1Cor.15:3–8).
OldTestament
Thepromises in the OT are closely related to the history of salvation.At each stage of redemptive history, God delivered a new messageabout redemption, usually in the form of a covenant. Immediatelyafter the fall of humankind, God first revealed his plan ofsalvation: the promise that the seed of the woman would ultimatelycrush the head of the serpent (Gen. 3:15). After the flood, God madea covenant with Noah, promising never again to destroy the earth witha flood (Gen. 8:21–9:17).
Mostremarkable is the promise that God made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob(Gen. 12:1–3; 13:14–17; 17:4–8; 22:17–18;26:1–5; 28:13–15). God called Abraham in order to givehim three specific blessings: the land, descendants, and the channelof blessing among the nations. As a sign of his promise, God made acovenant of circumcision with Abraham and his descendants (17:10–14).With Isaac (26:1–5) and Jacob (28:13–15), God repeatedlyreconfirmed the promise made to Abraham. At the time of the exodusand later the settlement in Canaan, God’s promise to Abrahamwas partially fulfilled by multiplying his descendants into millionsand by giving them the promised land.
AtMount Sinai, God made another covenant with the Israelites. In thiscovenant, God promised that they would be his “treasuredpossession” among the nations if they would obey him and keephis covenant (Exod. 19:5). God’s special blessings werepronounced for them to be “a kingdom of priests and a holynation” (19:6). For this purpose, God gave them the TenCommandments, which became the religious and ethical standard for hiscovenant people (20:1–17). In the book of Deuteronomy,moreover, God’s promises were made in the form of blessings tothe obedient and of curses to the disobedient (Deut. 28). Later thesebecame the criteria by which the kings of Israel were judged todetermine whether they had lived an obedient life.
Accordingto 2 Sam. 7:11–16, God made an eternal covenant with David,promising the permanence of David’s house, kingdom, and throne.In this covenant it was also promised that his offspring would buildthe house of the Lord. The Davidic covenant was partially fulfilledat the time of Solomon, who as king built the house of the Lord, thefirst temple in Jerusalem (1Kings 8:15–25). Later, in theperiod of the classical prophets, when the hope for the Davidicthrone was endangered, the permanence of the Davidic throne andkingdom reappeared in the form of messianic prophecy (Jer. 23:5–8;Ezek. 37:24–28). This promise was ultimately fulfilled by thecoming of Jesus Christ from the line of David (Matt. 1:1–17).
Thehistory of Israel shows that although the nation repeatedly brokeGod’s covenants, he remained faithful to them. According toNum. 23:19, God’s promises are absolutely trustworthy: “Godis not human, that he should lie, not a human being, that he shouldchange his mind. Does he speak and then not act? Does he promise andnot fulfill?” The trustworthiness of God’s promisesresults from his unchanging character (Ps. 110:4; Mal. 3:6–7).The almighty God has the power to fulfill his promises (Isa. 55:11).When Joshua finished conquering the land of Canaan, he confessed thatGod was faithful in keeping all his promises to his ancestors (Josh.21:45; 23:14–15). Joshua himself witnessed that trusting God’spromises is a life-and-death issue. Those who had not trusted hispromise to give them the land of Canaan perished in the wilderness,but those who had trusted his promise were allowed to enter it (Num.14:1–35).
NewTestament
Thecentral message of the NT is that God’s promises in the OT arefulfilled with the coming of Jesus Christ. Matthew’s numerouscitation formulas are evidence of this theme. In Luke 4:16–21Jesus pronounces the fulfillment of Isaiah’s promise (about theMessiah’s ministry [Isa. 61:1–3]) in his own life. Thebook of Acts specifically states that Jesus’ suffering andresurrection and the coming of the Holy Spirit are the fulfillment ofthe OT promises (2:29–31; 13:32–34). Jesus’identity both as the descendant of David (Acts 13:23) and as theprophet like Moses (Acts 3:21–26; cf. Deut. 18:15–18) isalso regarded as the fulfillment of theOT.
Paul’sview of God’s promises is summarized in this statement: “Forno matter how many promises God has made, they are ‘Yes’in Christ” (2Cor. 1:20). According to Rom. 1:2–3,Paul regards the gospel as the message that God “promisedbeforehand through his prophets in the Holy Scriptures regarding hisSon.” In Rom. 4 Abraham’s faith is described in terms ofhis trust in God’s promises, which leads to his righteousness.He is presented as our model of faith in God’s promises. Thefamous phrase “according to the Scriptures” in 1Cor.15:3–4 is, in a sense, understood by Paul as the fulfillment ofGod’s promises regarding Christ’s death and resurrection.
Inthe book of Hebrews, the concept of promise plays an important role.In Heb. 6 Abraham is presented as the exemplary man who trusted inGod’s promise. The author exhorts the Hebrew Christians tofollow Abraham’s model of trust in God’s promise(6:12–20). The author also asserts that Jesus’ newcovenant is superior to the old one because his ministry “isestablished on better promises” (8:6). In Heb. 11 the faith ofthe great OT saints is acclaimed in terms of their faith in God’spromises.
Inthe NT, God makes new promises based on the work of Christ, includingthe final resurrection and the second coming of Christ (John 5:29;11:25–26; 1Cor. 15:48–57; 2Cor. 4:14;1Thess. 4:13–18). Furthermore, the message of the gospelis presented as multiple promises, including eternal life, thefullness of life in Christ, the forgiveness of sins, the indwellingof the Holy Spirit, the peace of God, the knowledge of God, and thejoy of God (Matt. 28:18–20; John 3:16; 10:10; 14:16, 27;16:20–24; 17:25–26; Phil. 4:4–9; 1John 1:9).
HumanPromises
TheScriptures contain many cases of people making promises to otherpeople. For example, Abraham made promises to the king of Sodom andto Abimelek (Gen. 14:22–24; 21:22–24). The Israelitespies made a promise to Rahab (Josh. 2:12–21). People also makepromises to God: Jacob, Jephthah, Hannah, and the returning exiles(Gen. 28:20–21; Judg. 11:29–40; 1Sam. 1:11–20;Neh. 10:28–29). Human promises usually are accompanied by thetaking of an oath (Gen. 14:22; 21:24; Deut. 6:13; Josh. 2:12–14)or the declaration of a curse in case of its breach (Ruth 1:17;1Sam. 14:24; 2Sam. 3:35; 1Kings 2:23). It isimperative to keep the promise that one makes to a human being or toGod (Num. 30:1–2; Ps. 50:14). In Mal. 2:14–16, divorce isregarded as a breaking of the oath between husband and wife. In OTtimes, people were afraid of curses falling upon them when they brokea promise. The Bible warns of the danger of making false promises, asdoing so will bring about sin and judgment (Lev. 19:12; Deut. 23:21;Zech. 8:17). It is an axiom of the wisdom literature that one shouldnot make promises rashly or lightly (Prov. 20:25; Eccles. 5:1–7),and Jesus prohibits the taking of any oath because of the possibilityof its breach (Matt. 5:33–37).
The NT conception of tribulation is perhaps best summarizedin Paul’s pastoral reminder, “We must go through manyhardships to enter the kingdom of God” (Acts 14:22). The Greekterm used here for “hardship” is thlipsis.
Inthe NT, thlipsis may refer generally to the sufferings andafflictions that occur in the normal course of human living (John16:21; Acts 7:11; 1Cor. 7:28; James 1:27). In its more commonand specific usage, “tribulation” relates directly to theexperience of the people of God as a consequence of their faithfulproclamation of the gospel. Thus, in the parable of the sower,“tribulation or persecution arises on account of the word”(Matt. 13:21; Mark 4:17 ESV).
Oneof the primary aspects of the biblical view of tribulation relates tothe tribulation and suffering of Christ as the pattern for the church(Rev. 1:9). That his followers would suffer tribulation was madeexplicit by Jesus to his followers in the Farewell Discourse (John14–17). There he informs them, “In the world you willhave tribulation” (John 16:33 ESV).
Closelyrelated to the impending tribulation that confronts all believers isthe NT affirmation that the sufferings of Christ serve as the modelfor the tribulation of the people of God. Jesus thus warns thedisciples, “If the world hates you, keep in mind that it hatedme first” (John 15:18; cf. 15:20). Paul continues this conceptin Col. 1:24 (cf. 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10–12; Phil. 3:10; 1Pet.4:13). The tribulation that the people of God experience serves toequip them in a variety of ways. Most significantly, tribulationresults in the transformation of the people of God into the likenessof Christ (Rom. 5:3–5; 2Cor. 4:8–12).
Thebook of Acts records the fulfillment of Jesus’ warning to hisfollowers: it was because of persecution that the church wasscattered (Acts 8:1). Later, Paul notes that he has experiencedtribulation (2Cor. 1:8), as did the church in Thessalonica(1Thess. 1:6) and the recipients of Hebrews (Heb. 10:33). Thereality of “tribulation” is seen in the exhortation ofJohn to the church in Smyrna (Rev. 2:9).
Anotherimportant aspect of the tribulations that await the people of God inthe NT era is the relationship of tribulation to the kingdom of God(cf. Matt. 24:9–14; Rev. 1:9; 7:14). Many hold to the notionthat there will be an intensification of tribulation immediatelyprior to the return of Christ (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:24).
The“great tribulation” of Rev. 7:14 has been interpreted ina variety of ways. Some understand this as a future event limited toseven or three and one-half years. Many others, however, associatethis event with the tribulation, suffering, and affliction of thepeople of God throughout the entire era from the resurrection to thesecond coming. The expression “great tribulation” alludesto Dan. 12:1. The Danielic context incorporates a time of persecutionand suffering among the people of God. The use of “tribulation”in Revelation (Rev. 1:9; 2:9–10, 22; 7:14) corresponds with thepersecution of the people of God. A comparison with Matt. 24:21confirms this conclusion. Therefore, regardless of how one reads the“great tribulation” in Rev. 7:14, as present or futurereality, it appears that this tribulation refers to the suffering ofGod’s people and not to an exemption from it (cf. John 17:15).
Vessels and utensils of antiquity fell into two basiccategories: sacred and everyday. Sacred vessels and utensils founduse in cultic festivals, events, and services. Everyday vessels andutensils were used in household places such as the kitchen or aworkroom.
Vessels
Materialsand uses.Vessels in antiquity could be made from precious metals, differenttypes of stone, and varieties of wood. The most common material used,however, was clay. Clay was readily accessible and relatively easy toshape once obtained. Furthermore, once it had been fired, clay wasfairly sturdy and nonporous enough to hold liquids for long periodsof time. Numerous types of household vessels made from clay were inwide use by the time of the NT. The shape of the pottery was largelydependent on the function of the vessel.
Someof the more common vessels from the NT era andbefore include the alabastros, amphoreus, hydria, kratēr,oinochoē, and stamnos. The alabastros was a small vase forperfume or oil. It had a broad, flat mouth, a narrow neck, and athinly made body (Matt. 26:7; Mark 14:3–4). The word amphoreusrefers tosomething to be “carried on both sides,” and such vesselshad two vertical handles, a wide body, and a narrow neck. They camein various sizes and were used to transport wine and water andsometimes finer solids like grain. The hydria was used to fetch water(John 2:6). These containers usually had oval bodies, two horizontalhandles, and one verticalhandle. The kratēr was a large mixing bowl used for blendingwater and wine; the mixture was taken from the kratēr by a ladleand served to the guests (the inferior wine at the wedding feastmentioned in John 2:10 may have been this type of watered-downconcoction). An oinochoē was a jug used to pour wine. It usuallyhad one handle along its side. The stamnos was a pot used for storingand mixing. It had two small horizontal handles on its side. The bodywas rather round, and it had a short neck. Suchpots were the norm in ancient households for storage and service.Because they were fragile, handmade, and earthen, such vessels becameimages for humankind, for whom the same qualities can be listed (Job4:19; 33:6; Isa. 45:9; 2Cor. 4:7).
Besidesearthen vessels, containers made of wood and reeds often were usedfor storage. Those who could afford wood used it for storagecontainers of various goods because it protected the contents wellfrom pests. Baskets made of reeds of some sort were far lessexpensive and therefore more common in storage rooms. Grains anddried fruits usually were stored in such vessels until it was timefor them to be used. Typically, a cook waited until meal preparationto transform the grains into flour, as pulverized substances weredifficult to store (Exod. 11:5; Num. 11:8; Prov. 27:22). When it cametime to cook foods, pottery also sufficed for the common household,since metals were too costly (for an example of a clay pot used forboiling an item, see Lev. 6:28). Dishes were made of wood, pottery,or metal for the more wealthy. Archaeologists have discovered spoonsand other small utensils, but it is not known whether these were usedfor eating or simply for serving. Traditionally, people ate from ashared dish placed on the floor using bread to scoop up the food(Mark 14:20). Finally, liquids sometimes were stored in animal skins,especially in the earlier eras of biblical history (Josh. 9:4, 13;Judg. 4:19; Neh. 5:18; Job 32:19; Ps. 119:83; Matt. 9:17).
Sacredvessels.Sacred vessels were quite similar to their secular counterparts inmany ways, except that they were set apart for use in sacred ritualsand ceremonies (Exod. 25:39; 27:3). They included trays, shovels,pots, basins, forks, fire pans, and hooks (1Chron. 9:28–29;2Chron. 24:14–19; Jer. 27:18–21). At a banquet, theBabylonian king Belshazzar used gold and silver goblets taken fromthe Jerusalem temple, a blasphemous act for which he was harshlyjudged (Dan. 5). Joseph’s silver cup may have played a part inhis decision-making process, or it may simply have been a symbol ofhis high-standing office (Gen. 44:2).
Everyday,or profane, vessels and utensils were never to be brought into thesanctuary or used for worship services. In fact, some vessels thatwere used for worship were to be destroyed if somewhere in theprocess they were profaned (Lev. 6:28; 11:33). The prophets, however,looked forward to a day when even the most common or profane of itemswould be rendered sacred and holy to God, a day when all couldparticipate in the sacrifices of God’s people (Zech. 14:20–21).
Ossuaries.One other type of important vessel in the life of ancient Judaism wasthe ossuary. An ossuary, or bone box, was a container in which thebones of a deceased individual were placed for burial afterdecomposition of the body had occurred. They generally were made fromlimestone and could be ornately decorated or quite simple in form.Ossuaries were used as part of the burial process from about 30 BC toAD 70 to store the bones of loved ones (though the practice continuedsporadically into the third century AD). Most consider their use tobe the result of the teachings of the Pharisees that the bones neededto be freed from the sinful flesh and collected for resurrection.
Utensils
Someutensils necessary for cooking have already been discussed inconnection with the vessels. There were, however, other items used ineveryday life that had only tangential or no connection with cooking.
Firecould be started by using a friction drill. This tool consisted of awooden bow whose string was wound tightly around a spike. With ahollowed-out drill cap made of stone or a nutshell, the spike waspressed against the fire stick and rotated by moving the bow back andforth. Dry branches or dried dung could be used to fuel a cookingfire (2Kings 6:25; Ezek. 4:12, 15). (See also Tools.)
Writingutensils of the ancient Near East depended largely on the materialupon which the writing would be done. Early writing on clay was doneusing knives or a stamp applied while the clay was still wet. Whenthe material was cloth, skin, or papyrus, brushes were used to applya rich ointment used for ink. Finally, when a wax tablet was used,the writer scratched the surface with some type of sharp utensil.This instrument was a stylus or bodkin, which could be made from avariety of materials, such as iron, ivory, bone, minerals, or anyother hard substance. These were sharpened at one end to makeindentations and flattened on the other end for erasing marks andsmoothing the surface. (See also Writing Implements and Materials.)
Vessels and utensils of antiquity fell into two basiccategories: sacred and everyday. Sacred vessels and utensils founduse in cultic festivals, events, and services. Everyday vessels andutensils were used in household places such as the kitchen or aworkroom.
Vessels
Materialsand uses.Vessels in antiquity could be made from precious metals, differenttypes of stone, and varieties of wood. The most common material used,however, was clay. Clay was readily accessible and relatively easy toshape once obtained. Furthermore, once it had been fired, clay wasfairly sturdy and nonporous enough to hold liquids for long periodsof time. Numerous types of household vessels made from clay were inwide use by the time of the NT. The shape of the pottery was largelydependent on the function of the vessel.
Someof the more common vessels from the NT era andbefore include the alabastros, amphoreus, hydria, kratēr,oinochoē, and stamnos. The alabastros was a small vase forperfume or oil. It had a broad, flat mouth, a narrow neck, and athinly made body (Matt. 26:7; Mark 14:3–4). The word amphoreusrefers tosomething to be “carried on both sides,” and such vesselshad two vertical handles, a wide body, and a narrow neck. They camein various sizes and were used to transport wine and water andsometimes finer solids like grain. The hydria was used to fetch water(John 2:6). These containers usually had oval bodies, two horizontalhandles, and one verticalhandle. The kratēr was a large mixing bowl used for blendingwater and wine; the mixture was taken from the kratēr by a ladleand served to the guests (the inferior wine at the wedding feastmentioned in John 2:10 may have been this type of watered-downconcoction). An oinochoē was a jug used to pour wine. It usuallyhad one handle along its side. The stamnos was a pot used for storingand mixing. It had two small horizontal handles on its side. The bodywas rather round, and it had a short neck. Suchpots were the norm in ancient households for storage and service.Because they were fragile, handmade, and earthen, such vessels becameimages for humankind, for whom the same qualities can be listed (Job4:19; 33:6; Isa. 45:9; 2Cor. 4:7).
Besidesearthen vessels, containers made of wood and reeds often were usedfor storage. Those who could afford wood used it for storagecontainers of various goods because it protected the contents wellfrom pests. Baskets made of reeds of some sort were far lessexpensive and therefore more common in storage rooms. Grains anddried fruits usually were stored in such vessels until it was timefor them to be used. Typically, a cook waited until meal preparationto transform the grains into flour, as pulverized substances weredifficult to store (Exod. 11:5; Num. 11:8; Prov. 27:22). When it cametime to cook foods, pottery also sufficed for the common household,since metals were too costly (for an example of a clay pot used forboiling an item, see Lev. 6:28). Dishes were made of wood, pottery,or metal for the more wealthy. Archaeologists have discovered spoonsand other small utensils, but it is not known whether these were usedfor eating or simply for serving. Traditionally, people ate from ashared dish placed on the floor using bread to scoop up the food(Mark 14:20). Finally, liquids sometimes were stored in animal skins,especially in the earlier eras of biblical history (Josh. 9:4, 13;Judg. 4:19; Neh. 5:18; Job 32:19; Ps. 119:83; Matt. 9:17).
Sacredvessels.Sacred vessels were quite similar to their secular counterparts inmany ways, except that they were set apart for use in sacred ritualsand ceremonies (Exod. 25:39; 27:3). They included trays, shovels,pots, basins, forks, fire pans, and hooks (1Chron. 9:28–29;2Chron. 24:14–19; Jer. 27:18–21). At a banquet, theBabylonian king Belshazzar used gold and silver goblets taken fromthe Jerusalem temple, a blasphemous act for which he was harshlyjudged (Dan. 5). Joseph’s silver cup may have played a part inhis decision-making process, or it may simply have been a symbol ofhis high-standing office (Gen. 44:2).
Everyday,or profane, vessels and utensils were never to be brought into thesanctuary or used for worship services. In fact, some vessels thatwere used for worship were to be destroyed if somewhere in theprocess they were profaned (Lev. 6:28; 11:33). The prophets, however,looked forward to a day when even the most common or profane of itemswould be rendered sacred and holy to God, a day when all couldparticipate in the sacrifices of God’s people (Zech. 14:20–21).
Ossuaries.One other type of important vessel in the life of ancient Judaism wasthe ossuary. An ossuary, or bone box, was a container in which thebones of a deceased individual were placed for burial afterdecomposition of the body had occurred. They generally were made fromlimestone and could be ornately decorated or quite simple in form.Ossuaries were used as part of the burial process from about 30 BC toAD 70 to store the bones of loved ones (though the practice continuedsporadically into the third century AD). Most consider their use tobe the result of the teachings of the Pharisees that the bones neededto be freed from the sinful flesh and collected for resurrection.
Utensils
Someutensils necessary for cooking have already been discussed inconnection with the vessels. There were, however, other items used ineveryday life that had only tangential or no connection with cooking.
Firecould be started by using a friction drill. This tool consisted of awooden bow whose string was wound tightly around a spike. With ahollowed-out drill cap made of stone or a nutshell, the spike waspressed against the fire stick and rotated by moving the bow back andforth. Dry branches or dried dung could be used to fuel a cookingfire (2Kings 6:25; Ezek. 4:12, 15). (See also Tools.)
Writingutensils of the ancient Near East depended largely on the materialupon which the writing would be done. Early writing on clay was doneusing knives or a stamp applied while the clay was still wet. Whenthe material was cloth, skin, or papyrus, brushes were used to applya rich ointment used for ink. Finally, when a wax tablet was used,the writer scratched the surface with some type of sharp utensil.This instrument was a stylus or bodkin, which could be made from avariety of materials, such as iron, ivory, bone, minerals, or anyother hard substance. These were sharpened at one end to makeindentations and flattened on the other end for erasing marks andsmoothing the surface. (See also Writing Implements and Materials.)
Those who offer themselves freely and willingly, withoutcompulsion or consideration of value in return, to perform a task,make a vow, or serve another. In the OT, volunteers usually serve God(Deut. 23:23; 2Chron. 17:16; Ps. 110:3), Israel (Ezra 7:13;Neh. 11:2), or a leader in Israel (Judg. 5:2, 9; 1Chron.28:21). God himself is the ultimate volunteer, as he freely givesplace, purpose, and a partner to Adam (Gen. 2:15–22);unilaterally covenants with Abram to give him descendants, blessing,and land (Gen. 12:2–3; 15:17–21); liberates Israel frombondage in Egypt (Exod. 6:6–8; Deut. 20:1; Josh. 24:17; Ps.81:10); and remains faithful to Israel despite its repeated failures(Pss. 68:35; 106:44–46).
Inthe NT, God is also the sender of Jesus (Matt. 10:40; Mark 9:37; Luke4:18–21; John 4:34; 5:24, 30, 36–37), who heals of hisown volition (Luke 5:13), gives rest to the weary (Matt. 11:28), andlays down his life of his own accord for our redemption (Mark 10:45;John 10:18; Gal. 3:13–14; Eph. 5:2; Titus 2:14; 1Pet.1:18–19). With Jesus as the standard, the concept of willinglygiving of oneself and one’s possessions runs throughout the NT(Eph. 5:1–2). Christians are called to love and serve oneanother in spiritual and practical ways (Acts 2:44–45; Rom.12:9–21; 1Thess. 5:15–18; Philem. 14). They arealso to love their enemies and pray for their persecutors (Matt.5:44; Luke 6:27, 35). Those who wish to lead must first volunteerthemselves as servants to others (Matt. 20:27; Mark 9:35; Luke22:26). Elders are to shepherd voluntarily (1Pet. 5:2). Paul,who urges Christians to offer their bodies as living sacrifices (Rom.12:1), is himself a model of volunteerism and self-sacrifice (Acts20:34–35; 21:13; 1Cor. 9:19–23; 2Cor. 4:5;11:23–27).
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1. Let Your Diamond Light Shine
Illustration
Leonard Sweet
[Begin your sermon by scanning your congregation intently. After saying nothing for a period as you scrutinize your people, offer this explanation for your behavior:]
I am trying to see if you sparkle more this week than last week.
How many of you [or, "it looks like some of you"] celebrated Valentine's Day with a little bit of "bling!?" The holiday that elevates the warmth of our love and the softness of our hearts also pushes us to do so with something cold and hard — a diamond.
Diamonds, we are continually reminded, are forever. That's why they are worthy of a significant financial investment. Diamonds are expensive because they are rare, elusive, and found only in tiny bits and pieces. Yet if you could travel 50 light years away from Earth, to star BPM 37093, located in the Centaurus constellation, you would arrive at "Lucy" — a burned out sun, a "white dwarf," whose entire central core is a planet-sized chunk of crystallized carbon — a diamond. 10 billion-trillion-trillion carats worth, to be precise.
This "space diamond" was named "Lucy" after the Beatle's hit, "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds." By comparison, the largest earth-diamond, the Golden Jubilee Diamond, is 545 carats — a speck of sandon one of Lucy's dunes.
Diamonds are a chosen and cherished gem because of their sparkle and glow. They ignite with a kind of inner fire when the light hits them. Unfortunately for "Lucy," that means that the solid diamond core of that dwarf star is as unremarkable and unassuming as any other stone. You could take a drawer full of exquisite diamond gemstones and dump them in a drawer and — without the gift of reflective light—-you wouldn't know you had anything different than a box of rocks.
The miracle of reflected light is what Transfiguration Sunday is all about. In both the gospel and the epistle texts, it is the miracle of divine light that "transforms" and "transfigures" the moment and the message. In the gospel text the brilliance, the purity, of the light that illumines Jesus — a brightness "such as no one on earth could bleach them" — is what first attracts the attention of Jesus' disciple-companions to the mountaintop meeting.
2. How Is John Quincy Adams?
Illustration
Brett Blair
On his eightieth birthday, John Quincy Adams was walking slowly along a Boston street. A friend asked him "How is John Quincy Adams today?" The former president replied graciously, "Thank you, John Quincy Adams is well, sir, quite well, I thank you. But the house in which he lives at present is becoming dilapidated. It is tottering upon the foundations. Time and the seasons have nearly destroyed it. Its roof is pretty well worn out, its walls are shattered, and it trembles with every wind. The old tenement is becoming almost uninhabitable, and I think John Quincy Adams will have to move out of it soon; but he himself is quite well, sir, quite well."
That is the attitude we need to cultivate so that when the call home comes we may say with Paul: "I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith."
3. Looking at the World through the Eyes of God - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
I can't think of a greater condemnation to be levied against a people than this: They loved darkness instead of light. I would never want that to be said of me. But that is the way God sees the world. You and I see the world as it is right now. Most of the people around us try and do the right thing and when we are wrong hopefully we apologize. So we tend to think well of most people. But look out on the passage of time….
The Ancient World of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Hellenism, Rome, Persia, India, and East Asia was filled with the ignorance of hundreds of thousands of gods, magic, rituals, superstitions, human sacrifice, conquests, sewage(refuse was mostly thrown into the streets for the rats and dogs), disease (priests attempted to foretell the course of a disease by examining the livers of sacrificed animals). And the list doesn't end there: ethnic bigotry, civil wars, persecutions, despots, tyrants, class rule, and the systematic murders of tens of thousands.
The Middle Ages of Persia, Constantinople, Islam, Britain, China, India, Genghis Khan and the Mongols, Timur and the Turks, Europe, African Empires and the Americas. All of them covered in the darkness of man's inhumanity to man: Revolutions, expansionism, Mohammad's Conquest and Christianity's Crusades, warlords, heretics, witchcraft, increased trade bringing death and plagues to millions, and the crowding in the cities spreading the misery all the more. And on top of this misery wars fought for every ridiculous reason known to man.
The Enlightenment and the Modern world also have faired no better. We too have loved the darkness instead of the light. Europe, Africa, Mid-East, India, and the Americas have all dipped their finger into the cesspool of sin: Guns, germs, slavery, the need for women's suffrage, massacres, socialism, resistance to democracy, religious fundamentalism's resistance to progress, Fascism, Communism, The Holocaust, the Ku Klux Klan, greed, the market crash, The Depression, world wars, The Bomb, and lest we forget 9/11.
I can't tell you what a short list this is. And this says nothing of the millions of women and children who have suffered throughout the ages at the hands of ruthless men. There is no way to write that history because it is hidden from the pages of history.
Yes! Men have loved darkness rather than light. There is a morbid destructive tendency in all of us. We dabble in the diabolical. We revel in revenge. And we hate in our hearts. My, how we love to live in the shadows! What must God think of us?
Here is his verdict, as true today as it was when it was pronounced 2000 years ago: Light has come into the world, but men loved darkness instead of light, because their deeds were evil. This is Jesus' description of mankind. And can any of us argue with him?
For a few moments let's look at the world through the eyes of God. What does he see? He sees that....
1. There are those whose deeds are evil.
2. There are those who live by the truth.
3. There are those who acknowledge their need for forgiveness.
4. The Light Has Come
Illustration
John E. Sumwalt
Have you ever sat in a lighted room at night, reading or talking, and suddenly the lights go out? What's the first thing you say? Usually everyone says, "Who turned out the light?"
In this age of electricity, light is something we take for granted. Few of us ever experience total darkness. In the city, we have street lights which come on automatically as soon as it begins to get dark. In the country, most farms have a mercury vapor light that stays on all night for security reasons. Consequently, most of us never get a good look at the stars as we used to when all the lights went out at night.
If you ever get the chance to go out in the desert at night do it. The darkness on nights with no moon or star light isso total someone could be standing right next to you and you wouldn't know it.
This text from John's gospel is about darkness and light: "And this is the judgment," John says, "that the light has come into the world and people loved darkness rather than light because their deeds were evil."
5. Why Have You Forsaken Me?
Illustration
Richard A. Wing
I read about a depressed songwriter who battled the successes of the past and a fear of the future. He was bankrupt. He had a cerebral hemorrhage that left him partially paralyzed. He worried that the creative spark that had made him rich was gone. He was depressed. The scriptural texts that were his friends and that his soul could hear were texts such as "Why have you forsaken me?"
In the midst of his depression, a man came by who had compiled scriptures together in a semi-orderly fashion. He suggested that the songwriter put some music to the text. The writer looked at the text that read, "He was despised and rejected of humanity," and he felt that way, too. He read texts of the one for whom "no one had pity." He read about the one who trusted God still. He read the words, "I know that my redeemer liveth." He read the words "rejoice" and "hallelujah." That night George Frederic Handel, now regarded as one of the greatest composers of his era, was blessed by a "gentle cosmic light." He was led slowly out of darkness by a desire to write music at a feverish pitch. He worked tirelessly for days until, with manuscript complete, he dropped into a seventeen-hour, death-like sleep. A doctor was summoned to see if he was alive. Out of depression came the light of the Messiah. Out of that depression was left for us a light that would light the corridors of the lives of countless millions for all ages. Out of that darkness, a man in a deep depression began, as Stevenson said of the lamplighter, "punching holes in the darkness."
God punched holes in the darkness through Jesus. Jesus at the end of his life left us words that we can use as we anticipate the coming of the Christ. "Take heed. Listen. Be awake." "Your extremity is God's opportunity."
6. Lent: Giving Up
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
Self Denial is about making a sacrifice that makes a difference, focusing on the Cross and reminding ourselves what Christ gave up for us. Rev. Craig Gates of Jackson Mississippi has a great list of suggestions. He says we should:
GIVE UP grumbling! Instead, "In everything give thanks." Constructive criticism is OK, but "moaning, groaning, and complaining" are not Christian disciplines.
GIVE UP 10 to 15 minutes in bed! Instead, use that time in prayer, Bible study and personal devotion. A few minutes in prayer WILL keep you focused.
GIVE UP looking at other people's worst attributes. Instead concentrate on their best points. We all have faults. It is a lot easier to have people overlook our shortcomings when we overlook theirs first.
GIVE UP speaking unkindly. Instead, let your speech be generous and understanding. It costs so little to say something kind and uplifting or to offer a smile. Why not check that sharp tongue at the door?
GIVE UP your hatred of anyone or anything! Instead, learn the discipline of love. "Love covers a multitude of sins."
GIVE UP your worries and anxieties! They're too heavy for you to carry anyway. Instead, trust God with them. Anxiety is spending emotional energy on something we can do nothing about: like tomorrow! Live today and let God's grace be sufficient.
GIVE UP TV one evening a week! Instead, visit someone who's lonely or sick. There are those who are isolated by illness or age. Why isolate yourself in front of the "tube?" Give someone a precious gift: your time!
GIVE UP buying anything but essentials for yourself! Instead, give the money to God. The money you would spend on the luxuries could help someone meet basic needs. We're called to be stewards of God's riches, not consumers.
GIVE UP judging others by appearances and by the standard of the world! Instead, learn to give up yourself to God. There is only one who has the right to judge, Jesus Christ.
7. Blasphemy Against the Spirit
Illustration
Staff
This statement (Matt 12:32, par Mk. 3:29, Luke 12:10) has been the subject of much questioning. Obviously the reference here is not to the naming of the Holy Spirit in a blasphemous utterance, for in Matt. 12:32 even blasphemy against the Son of man can be forgiven. Among the many attempts at exegesis, the most convincing is the suggestion that the man who blasphemes against the Holy Spirit is he who has recognized that God is working through the Holy Spirit in the actions of Jesus, and who quite consciously "misrepresent faith in God as faith in the devil. This saying is an extremely serious warning against the demonic and scarcely conceivable potential in man: To declare war on God. This is not done in weakness and doubt, but by one who has been overcome by the Holy Spirit and who knows very well on whom he is declaring war" (E. Schweizer, The Good News according to Mark, 1971, 87; cf. H.W. Beyer, TDNT I:624; O.E. Evans, "The Unforgivable Sin", ExpT 68, 1956-57, 240-44). This is the blasphemer who does it deliberately, after encounter with the God of grace, as the context shows. For Jesus has just been accused of casting out demons by Beelzebul, the prince of demons. "Therefore he who blasphemes the Spirit is no longer speaking against a God who is distant, about whom he entertains mere foolish thoughts, but against the one who makes evident to him his gracious work, and confirms it with his manifest, divine seal. He is a man who ought to give thanks, not to blaspheme" (A. Schlatter, on Matt. 12:32).
W.L. Lane draws attention to Sifre on Deut. 32:38 (end): "The Holy One, blessed be he, pardons everything else, but on profanation of the Name [i.e. blasphemy] he takes vengeance immediately" (The Gospel of Mark, NLC, 1974, 145) Lane goes on to comment: "This is the danger to which the scribes exposed themselves when they attributed to the agency of Satan the redemption brought by Jesus. The expulsion of demons was a sign of the intrusion of the Kingdom of God. Yet the scribal accusations against Jesus amount to a denial of the power and greatness of the Spirit of God. By assigning the action of Jesus to a demonic origin the scribes betray a perversion of spirit which, in defiance of the truth, chooses to call light darkness. In this historical context, blasphemy against the Holy Spirit denotes the conscious and deliberate rejection of the saving power and grace of God released through Jesus' work and act" (ibid). Thus blasphemy here is much more serious than the taking of the divine name in vain which a believer may have done before coming to repentance and faith.
It may be said to those who have been tormented by fear that they have committed the unforgivable sin that their concern is itself a sign that they have not committed the sin envisaged in Jesus' teaching here. Lane's interpretation also helps to explain the distinction drawn between blasphemy against the Son of man and blasphemy against the Holy Spirit. The distinction suggests that "while an attack on Jesus' own person, as son of Man and therefore 'hidden', is pardonable, any speaking against the power by which he works (i.e. the divine endowment for his messianic ministry) will not be pardoned" (D. Hill, The Gospel of Matthew, New Century Bible, 1972, 318). For such an action would be deliberately to attribute to Satan the action of God himself. (NIDNTT, v. 3, pp. 343-344)
What is blasphemy against the Holy Spirit? Though many suggestions have been offered, I think the answer lies in the context here (Luke 12:7-12) and in the context of redemptive history. Remember that the Holy Spirit had not yet been poured out, and it is the Spirit who causes men to recognize who Jesus is. Hebrews 6 and 10 contain discussions of unforgivable sins, but the distinction between blasphemy against Christ and the Spirit has disappeared. Jesus seemed to be saying this: Because the Holy spirit has not yet been poured out in fullness, the Jews will be forgiven for blaspheming the Son of Man. They will be given a second chance to repent, as we see in the book of Acts. If, however, they continue to blaspheme after the Spirit has come, they will not be forgiven. But what is the sin, specifically? Since it is blasphemy, we must see it essentially as a verbal sin. In context it is the sin of saying that Jesus Christ is of the devil. Jesus was willing to excuse this blasphemy before Pentecost; but, in the new covenant era it is not longer excusable. If a person curses Jesus, but does not really know who Jesus is, that sin is forgivable. But if the Holy Spirit has borne witness to a person that Jesus is indeed the Son of God, and that person curses Him, it cannot be forgiven.
8. The Word Became Flesh
Illustration
Paul E. Flesner
If John's Gospel were the only one we had, there would be no little town of Bethlehem. There'd be no shepherds out in their fields. There would be no manger and no virgin birth.No north star and no creche. If John is all we hadhereis all that we would know about Jesus' birth: before his name was Jesus, his name was the Word, and he was with God from the very beginning of creation, bringing things into being, making things happen, shining light into the darkness.
He was God's self, God's soul, God's life force in the world. He was the breath inside all living things. He was the electric spark that charged peoples' hearts. He was the fire inside the sun. He was the space between the stars. He was the axis around which the galaxies spin.
John goes on to say that not everyone got that message. Many were blinded by this light and preferred the darkness they knew to the light which they did not know. The Word sidled up to them and hummed life into their ears, but they cleared their throats and walked away. So God decided to speak in a new way. God decided to speak body language. "And the Word became flesh and lived among us full of grace and truth."
This is John's Christmas story in a nutshell. Like Luke, John is telling us about an encounter with the Holy One. God's Word was translated into a human being. God's self, soul, and life force were concentrated into one mortal life on earth, and as a result, nothing would ever be the same again. Not because everyone listened, because everyone does not, but because the eternal Word of God took human form.
9. The Temptation We Face Everyday
Illustration
Warren Hudson
"One night at the end of a special Saturday night worship service," writes Warren Hudson of Ontario, Canada," a thunderstorm unleashed a bolt of lightning that plunged the church into darkness." With the congregation seated in total darkness, the pastor felt his way to the kitchen to find some candles. The pastor handed out the candles to everyone present. Persons lit their candles in much the same way as many churches do on Christmas Eve, each person lighting the candle of the person next to them. The worshipers then made their way through the church's winding hallways to the front door.
"Peering out, we could see the rain coming down in sheets," Warren remembers. With traffic snarled, people were running for the nearest shelter. Looking around they realized that the entire city was in darkness. "There in the darkness we stood," Warren writes, "a little band of Christians, each clutching a light, not sure whether to venture out into the storm or stay inside the church in hopes that the storm would soon blow over."
There in the darkness the light of truth struck him. In this most dramatic way he realized what it means to be the "light of the world." He writes, "It occurred to me then that this is the temptation I face every day. It is easy to play it safe and be a good Christian in church. It is a lot harder to venture out in faith into the storms of the world."
10. The Warning and Promise of Advent
Illustration
Susan R. Andrews
William Willimon tells the story of a funeral he attended when he was serving a small congregation in rural Georgia. One of his members' relatives died, so Willimon and his wife attended the funeral held in an off-brand, country Baptist church. He writes: "I had never seen anything like it. The preacher began to preach. He shouted; he flailed his arms. 'It's too late for Joe. He's dead. But it ain't too late for you. People drop dead every day. Why wait? Now is the day for decision. Give your life to Jesus.' "
Willimon goes on to suggest that this was the worst thing he had ever seen. He fumed and fussed at his wife Patsy, complaining that the preacher had done the worst thing possible for a grieving family - manipulating them with guilt and shame. Patsy agreed. But then she said: "Of course the worst part of it all is that what he said is true."
My friends, each one of us lives in the shadow of the apocalypse - the dark reality of the end of our time and the end of the world's time. That is the warning of Advent. But there is also good news. There is also the promise of Advent - the promise that in the darkness, in the shadows, in the unpredictable anxiety of our unfinished lives, God is present. God is in control, and God will come again. With each candle we light, the shadows recede a bit, and the promise comes closer. With each candle we light, we are proclaiming that the light shines in the darkness and the darkness will never overcome it. The promise is that wherever there is darkness and dread in our lives, wherever there is darkness and dread in the world around us, God is present to help us endure. God is in charge, and hope is alive. And as long and as interminable as the night seems, morning will come - in God's good time and God's good way.
11. Where the Scary Things Live
Illustration
Johnny Dean
For most of us, becoming adults hasn't necessarily cured us of our fear of the dark. Oh, we may have switched to waterbeds that nothing could possibly get underneath. And our closets may be a little bigger (although still not big enough) and they're filled with business suits or work clothes instead of building blocks and athletic gear. But at night, when the lights are out and the children are safely tucked into bed to wrestle with THEIR fears, our own monsters come to life and torment us yet again.
Am I a caring husband? Am I a loving wife? Do I really try to understand my spouse's point of view? Are we raising our children the right way? What about my parents? Am I doing all I can to make their later years as pleasant as they made my early years? Can I be sure my children aren't experimenting with drugs? When will I ever be able to slow down? Why doesn't someone invent a magic pill that will make all these excess pounds I'm carrying around disappear overnight, never to return again? Why do I never seem to be satisfied any more? Where is God in the middle of all this chaos in my life?
Yes, in the light of day we function pretty well through this messy maze of life - paying bills, getting family schedules coordinated, even managing once in a while to eat those high-fiber, low-fat meals our doctors tell us we're supposed to eat. And the fear of our unknowns, the scary stuff, is kept safely at arm's length, barricaded securely behind our busy work schedules and microwave dinners.
But when our world slows down a little, when darkness falls, the fears creep in. No they don't - they RUSH into our lives, our hearts, our minds, our very souls, and the torture begins once again. Does it always have to be that way?
Quoting the prophet Isaiah, Jesus said, "The people who lived in darkness have seen a great light, and to those who sat in the region and shadow of death light has dawned." And there's something inside us that wants to believe that if anything in this life is true, THIS is! Something inside us wants to believe that this is the only hope worth hanging on to, that here is a way out of the fearful mess we've made of our lives. Somewhere, sometime, we believe that WE have seen that light. We remember seeing it, once upon a time, a long time ago. If only we could find it again - or if IT could find US - then maybe the darkness wouldn't be quite so threatening and ominous.
12. One Side Light, One Side Dark
Illustration
King Duncan
One of the most important symbolic events of the 20th century was the dismantlingof the wall that separated East and West Berlin. The division of post-war Germany and the erection of the Berlin Wall wasa constant reminder of the division between East and West. It also had been a symbol of repression and brutality. Visitors to the Berlin Wall over its last two decades noted that one of the most striking features of this division was the dim lighting on the East side. Whether this was due to a lack of streetlights, billboards, advertising displays, fewer automobiles or whatever, visitors took this striking contrast as significant - for West Berlin is one of the most brilliantly lighted cities in the world. On one side darkness; on the other, light.
The entire world is like that. Wouldn't you like to take the light of Christmas and light up the world? That is the dream of every man, woman, young person who bears the name of Jesus. The light has shined into the darkness and the darkness has not overcome it.
13. Ashamed To Beg
Illustration
John G. Lynn
In a large attractive office in a major city, a man worked for several months next to a small attractive woman. He had been there only a few days when he thought he'd ask her to lunch, which he did. The following day he asked her for dinner and they began a long dating relationship. They went to craft fairs together, since he liked to do that. They went to the ocean, which he also liked to do. They used to take long walks along the river.
He liked this relationship. He had lived for many years with his mother. In fact, it was only a few months after she died that he began dating his co-worker. Little by little, however, she began to dislike both the relationship and this man. She felt like she really wasn't herself when she was with him. She couldn't speak what she really felt. She rarely asserted where she wanted to go or what she wanted to do. She later said, "I just wasn't Sandra with him."
So she terminated her social, dating relationship with this man. Once she did, she began to feel like herself again. Her friends told her, "You're more like the old Sandra now."
Across the same town, in another office, a young man sat at his desk for eight years, struggling to manage his office work force. Outside he was a friendly, generous person. In the office he was the same way and his workers flattened him out, like steamrollers over an asphalt road. He worked long, long hours; he holed himself up behind his desk to keep all the records accurate; he just about wore himself out. Finally his friends told him, "Steve, you'd better get out of that job. You're not yourself anymore. Those people are eating you alive and you're not getting anywhere."
He protested, "But it's a good job. I make good money. And besides, it is what I do best. How can I even look for anything else?"
Then the company was sold. New management came in. All the supervisors were replaced and Steve found himself on the street. He was terrified. "To dig I am unable, to beg I am ashamed," he said. "What can I do?"
His friends told him they were glad he was fired. "At least you are your old self," they said. "And you'll find something. Just go for it." He did, and now he's doing better than he ever could have in the position he once felt he could never leave.
The steward in today's gospel lesson is like both Sandra and Steve. Sandra was not herself in that relationship. Steve was not himself in that job. Both were wasting away, losing that which was most precious to them both: their proper identities. Both felt they could not survive if they gave up something so close and precious as a relationship or a job.
In today's gospel lesson the steward's master calls him on the carpet. In Luke's mind, this Lord and Master is God. God always calls his stewards into question when they are wasteful of who and what they are. This steward is not just wasting his master's goods. The steward is wasting himself. Nothing is more precious in God's household than his steward's proper identity. This is God's gift to this steward, and he is wasting it. No wonder God calls him to account.
God does this to us all the time. He checks our relationships and he checks our jobs -- to help us make sure we are not wasting our identities where we are. This steward was. So God dismissed him. He had to get a new job and a new relationship. God does not tolerate our wasting who we are.
This dismissal turned the light on for the steward. "What shall I do? To dig I am unable, to beg I am ashamed." Finally he came to an assessment of who he was and what he could do. He came to value his own identity, one of his master's most precious goods.
He called in his master's creditors. "How much do you owe? One hundred barrels of oil? Take your bill and write 50." Did he cheat his master? Not at all. The commercial documents from that time indicate that 50 percent was the normal commission. He renounced what he thought he had to have to live on -- and he won friends for himself in so doing.
"How much do you owe? One hundred bushels of wheat? Take your bill and write 80." He did not cheat his master. He simply renounced his own commission. He gave up what he thought he needed to survive, and he survived much better without it. He zeroed in on his own identity, rather than on the commission he thought he had to have to survive.
Bruno Bettelheim, who has studied the survivors of the concentration camps in World War II, writes that those who survived were able to give up everything they thought they needed and, in so giving, they survived. Those who thought they would die if they had no clothing, no jewelry, no regular food, no books -- they did not make it.
Sometimes God will do to us what he did to this steward. He will strip us down to the very core of our existence to make us discover who we really are. He will bring us to a crossroad in life where we will be forced to say, "To dig I am not able, to beg I am ashamed." There God will reveal to us who we are. As we reach to him for help we will find ourselves renouncing our commissions -- whatever we think we need to survive but we really don't. God knows that.
Luther found himself in this position many times in his life. Once, as he began his study of law, he was struck down in a thunderstorm. Terrified, he cried out, "Dear Saint Ann, help me. I will become a monk." He quit his study of law and became a theologian instead -- the identity God wanted for him in the first place. He was wasting himself in law.
Later on, as a monk, he studied Paul's Epistle to the Romans. At that time in his life he felt he could not be Martin Luther unless he ended each day with a tray full of good works to present to God. In praying over Paul, he learned the difference between works righteousness and faith. He learned he was wasting God's gift of Martin Luther's identity in that daily tray full of good works.
He wrote: "Night and day I pondered until I saw the connection between the justice of God and the statement that the just shall live by faith. Then I grasped that the justice of God is that righteousness by which through mercy and sheer grace God justified us through faith. Thereupon I felt myself to be reborn and to have gone through open doors into paradise." Martin Luther the Do-Gooder was reborn Martin Luther the Believer.
Today's gospel lesson introduces that curious term, "mammon," an Aramaic word which means: "that in which I put my trust." We are like Sandra, Steve, and this steward. How easy to put all our trust in relationships or commissions or a job. God will not let us do that forever. He will force us to give up those people and those things we feel are absolutely critical. In God's eyes they are roadblocks to the truth. He will take them away. Then we will discover our real identities as God's stewards, and him alone shall we serve. "
14. Do As You Please
Illustration
Michael Horton
The radical gospel of grace as it is found throughout Scripture, has always had its critics. Jimmy Swaggart once said that by trusting in God's justifying and preserving grace, we would end up living a life of sin before long and thus, lose our salvation and be consigned to hell. Paul anticipated that reaction from the religious community of his own day after he said, "Where sin abounded, grace abounded much more" (Romans 5:20, NKJV). So he asked the question he expected us to ask: "Shall we continue in sin that grace may abound?" (6:1) Should we sin so that we can receive more grace? In other words, "If people believed what you just said in Romans 5, Paul, wouldn't they take advantage of the situation and live like the dickens, knowing they were 'safe and secure from all alarm'?" That's a fair question. But it reveals a basic misunderstanding of the nature of God's saving grace. Paul's response is unmistakable: "Certainly not? How shall we who died to sin live any longer in it?" (Romans 6:2, NKJV).
Someone confronted Martin Luther, upon the Reformer's rediscovery of the biblical doctrine of justification, with the remark, "If this is true, a person could simply live as he pleased!"
"Indeed!" answered Luther. "Now, what pleases you?"
Augustine was the great preacher of grace during the fourth and fifth centuries. Although his understanding of the doctrine of justification did not have the fine-tuned precision of the Reformers, Augustine's response on this point was similar to Luther's. He said that the doctrine of justification led to the maxim, "Love God and do as you please." Because we have misunderstood one of the gospel's most basic themes, Augustine's statement looks to many like a license to indulge one's sinful nature, but in reality it touches upon the motivation the Christian has for his actions. The person who has been justified by God's grace has a new, higher, and nobler motivation for holiness than the shallow, hypocritical self-righteousness or fear that seems to motivate so many religious people today.
15. A Question of Grace
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
There are two actors in this scene of John's gospel: Jesus and Nicodemus. Nicodemus is not a popular figure in the gospels. He appears only a couple of other times in John's record. The last picture of him is in John 19. He and Joseph of Arimathea asked for the body of Jesus after He was crucified in order that He might have a decent burial.
One of Rembrandt's most famous etchings portrays that scene. The limp, dead body of Jesus was slowly taken down from the cross. Joseph of Arimathea, dressed as the person that he was, in all his finery, stands close by. In the darkness, further away, veiled in shadow as only Rembrandt could do it, with his face lined in sorrow, is Nicodemus. He is holding in his hands the linen cloth in which Jesus' body would be buried. The Gospel says that Nicodemus also brought with him a mixture of spices, myrrh and aloes, "about a hundred pounds". One wonders what Nicodemus must have been thinking as he stood there, waiting for the body of Christ to be taken down from the cross. Obviously, much was going on in his life this wealthy man, bringing fine linen and a bountiful amount of expensive spices to anoint the body of one who had died as a common criminal. Was he still mystified as he had been when Jesus told him that he must be born again? Was he still puzzled by the response of Jesus when he pressed his question about how one could be born again? Jesus' answer had been totally unsatisfying for his rational mind: "The Spirit blows where it wills you feel it, and you hear the sound of it but you don't know from where it comes or where it goes. So is everyone who is born of the Spirit."
Did he yet not understand? – it is nothing you do, Nicodemus, Jesus said. The Spirit does it – it is all grace. Position, honor, success, responsibility, who you know, what you have; it counts for nothing. It's all grace.
That's the issue Jesus is questioning Nicodemus about in our scripture lesson today. "Are you the teacher of Israel, and do not know these things?" It's a question relevant to us because it's the question of grace.
16. In a Dark Cave
Illustration
John R. Steward
A man was once put in a dark cave. He was sentenced to die in the cave unless he could find his way out. The cave was 100 yards by 100 yards and he was told that there really was a way out.
The cave was sealed by a very large rock. After the cave was sealed the prisoner was allowed to take off his blindfold. In the midst of the darkness he walked around the cave. He had food, but it was bread and water which would only last for thirty days. The food was lowered to him from a hole in the ceiling of the cave which was about eighteen feet high. The opening was only one foot in diameter.
The man investigated the cave and soon discovered that there was a pile of rocks. He quickly determined that if he could build up the pile of rocks even higher, perhaps he could escape. By calculating both his height and his reach he believed that he needed to build the mound ten feet high.
Every moment was devoted to finding rocks and placing them in the pile. After two weeks he had built the mound to about six feet. He figured that over the next two weeks he could complete the task before the food would run out. He had not taken into account that he had already used up most of the rocks in the cave. Now he would have to use the rocks that were left and certainly more dirt. He had nothing with which to dig but his bare hands. After the next two weeks had passed he had only built the mound to nine-and-a-half feet; he thought that he could perhaps reach the opening if he were to jump. At this point he was near exhaustion. As he tried to jump and reach the opening he fell. Now he was too weak to get up and try again and in two days he was dead.
When they came to remove his body from the cave, they removed the large stone that covered the entrance, and the light that poured in revealed everything. In the light it was evident that there was an opening in the wall of the cave at ground level. The hole in the wall was the beginning of a tunnel that traveled for 200 feet and led to freedom. The captured man had so focused on the opening above that he never thought that there could be another way out of the cave. The opening was right next to the mound that he had been building. The trouble was that the opening on the ground level was in the darkness and did not seem possible to him.
Too often people reject Jesus as a way to freedom because it seems too easy or impractical. Sometimes he is rejected because it seems too dark and difficult. We think that we can do it by our own efforts and that we do notneed his help. Today he asks us to let go of all of our attempts to find freedom and follow him.
Adapted fromJohn Bradshaw, Healing the Shame that Binds (Deerfield Beach, Florida: Health Communications, Inc.), p. 117.
17. ARE CHRISTIANS AN ENDANGERED SPECIES?
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Are Christians an endangered species? This is really not the most pleasant question to consider. But at some time or another I would imagine we have all thought about it.
Faced with an uncomfortable question, we find comfort and assurance in God’s Word. Speaking of Jesus, in John 1:5 (GNB) it says, "His life is the light that shines through the darkness - and the darkness can never extinguish it." Never, it says. The power of God’s light can never be extinguished. The good news about Jesus will always be good news. Sin will have its triumphs, but it never will completely prevail.
Most of the danger to Christianity does not come from the outside but from within. I would like to consider with you three of the dangers from within referring to them as Christianity’s sin from within.
There is the endangering problem of self-centeredness or the S of sin from within. Often we get so caught up with our own church or our own denomination that our world view of Christianity doesn’t go much beyond our congregation’s front door. In our quest to preserve our peculiar understanding of Scripture, we often fail to bask in the good news of a Christ who stands at the center of Scripture. The New Testament abounds with encouragement for us to be one with each other - to rejoice in that which unites us in the Body of Christ rather than to dwell upon our theological idiosyncrasies. It is incompatible with Christianity for us to separate ourselves from other Christians in order to do just our own thing. We are going to spend our eternity with all these people. The time to get acquainted and work together is now.
Another aspect of the problem is inhibited love. Inhibited love is the I of the sin from within. There is no virtue in loving someone who is lovable. Anyone can do that - even non-believers. There is no virtue in loving someone with whom we agree, that is almost like loving ourself. Jesus said, "If you love only those who love you, what good is that? Even scoundrels do that much." But there is virtue in uninhibited, unconditional love. We are called by Jesus to embrace with forgiving love a brother or sister who has disappointed or even offended us. Forgiveness flows in a church when the Spirit of God resides in its members. Love that flows freely is the love that Jesus spoke about when he said, "Love your enemies! Pray for those who persecute you. In that way you will be acting as true sons of your Father in heaven."
The final sin from within, represented by the N in sin, is nonchalance. Too many of us take our Christianity too casually - with nonchalance. Saint Paul, in his letter to the Ephesians, encourages us to put on God’s armour so that we will be able to stand safe against all the strategies and tricks of Satan. We are encouraged to use every piece of God’s armor available to us.
Self-centeredness, inhibited love, and nonchalance - three sins from within that endanger Christianity. And so we return to our question, "Are Christians an endangered species?" Some are and some are not. Although we have the promise of God that the light will never go completely out, our task together with the total church is to make sure we shine brightly. We continue to do battle with the forces of evil from both without and from within. To plan to do less is to risk joining the list of endangered species.
18. The Meaning of Life - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
In Act 5 scene 5 of Shakespeare's Macbeth, the character Macbeth has heard that the queen is dead and he knows his own death is imminent. At this time he delivers his famous soliloquy:
Tomorrow, and tomorrow and tomorrow
creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time,
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, Out, brief candle
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage
and then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot. Full of sound and fury
Signifying nothing.
Is Macbeth right? Is life nothing but a shadow having no substance, no meaning? Writers and philosophers since recorded time have tried to answer the question. I don't think any of them have been successful in answering the question to everyone's satisfaction. Some one once said that "Trying to speak about the ultimate reality is like sending a kiss through a messenger." I understand their point: Something of its truth is lost in the translation.
What is the meaning of life? A philosophical question to be sure but this is not only the philosopher's question. It is a genuinely human question and therefore a question that we all ask. It might be a question that is asked in despair or hope, out of cynicism, or out of sincere curiosity and a deep desire to have goals and guidance in life. However we raise the question about the meaning of life, it is our most basic and fundamental question.
And so it comes as no surprise that Jesus deals with this question and answers it. Surprisingly, the answer is not given in the context of an argument with the Jewish leaders or in a discussion with his disciples, and it is not given in the Sermon on the Mount where Jesus deals with so many fundamental issues. It is telling that Jesus deals with the meaning of life in the context of prayer.
In the context of what has been called, by many scholars, Jesus' High Priestly Prayer. [Pause] The Disciples are in the upper room, now. They have just finished the Passover meal and Jesus is thinking about his crucifixion which will occur within the next 24 hours. He knows he is about to leave his disciples alone in the world and he goes before God as a priest would, to intercede for them, to pray for them.
Listen again to his prayer. I am lifting out a few key verses: "While I was with them, I protected them and kept them safe, but I will remain in the world no longer…Holy Father, protect them by the power of your name—the name you gave me—so that they may be one as we are one. Father, the time has come. Glorify your Son, that your son may glorify you. For you granted him authority over all people that he might give eternal life…and this is eternal life: that they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom you have sent." It is in this third verse that Jesus delivers the meaning of eternal life and in essence the meaning of life itself. He says, "Now this is eternal life: that they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom you have sent."
In essence, Jesus says, "the meaning of life is this: that you have a relationship with God, and me his Son, Jesus Christ." And that's the long and short of it! But, Jesus himself, understood just how difficult it was going to be not only for his disciples but for all of us to come to this very simple realization in life and so he prays for two key things. First, in order that we might understand the meaning of life…
1. He Prays for Our Protection from the World.
2. He Prays That We Might Know God.
19. Waiting for More
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
Some Christians make their faith sound so simple. Find Jesus, they assert, be saved, and that will take care of everything. All will be finished, done, complete, settled. But to embrace the light and love of Christ is just the beginning. It is a significant step, but only a beginning. We must then struggle with the presence of darkness, even as we affirm God's gift of light. We must then grapple with the challenge to be co-creators with God as we anticipate that new creation.
William Willimon, dean of the chapel at DukeUniversity, asserts:
Show me a person who is not waiting [for something more to come], not yearning, not leaning forward, standing on tiptoe for something better, and I will show you a person who has given up hope for anything better, someone who has settled down too comfortably in present arrangements. And that's sad. The future belongs to those who wait, for those who know we are meant for something better. The present darkness is not our final destination.
20. The Word Became Flesh
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
In The Message, Eugene Peterson paraphrases the familiar words of the Word becoming flesh this way: "The Word became flesh and blood, and moved into our neighborhood." This is the remarkable truth we celebrate during the Christmas season, a truth we would do well to carry into the new year—that ours is a creating God who continues to act in human life, bringing light into our darkness, hope into our despair, life into our brokenness, love into our fear and suspicion and dread. And perhaps it is only when life is at its toughest, when that light seems most elusive, that faith begins to make sense at all. For it is faith that empowers us, when immersed in darkness, to trust in the presence of the light.
21. Athanasian Creed
Illustration
Brett Blair
Athanasian Creed:Athanasius, known as Athanasius of Alexandria, was the 20th bishop of Alexandria. His intermittent episcopacy spanned 45 years, of which over 17 encompassed five exiles. He istraditionally thought to be the author of the thisCreed named after him.It was createdto guardNicene Christianity from the heresy of Arianism. It is widely accepted as orthodox and some abbreviated versions of it are still in usetoday. And yes, the intro and outro are actually part of the original text.
Whoever desires to be saved should above all hold to the catholic faith.
Anyone who does not keep it whole and unbroken will doubtless perish eternally.
Now this is the catholic faith:
That we worship one God in trinity and the trinity in unity,
neither blending their persons
nor dividing their essence.
For the person of the Father is a distinct person,
the person of the Son is another,
and that of the Holy Spirit still another.
But the divinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is one,
their glory equal, their majesty coeternal.
What quality the Father has, the Son has, and the Holy Spirit has.
The Father is uncreated,
the Son is uncreated,
the Holy Spirit is uncreated.
The Father is immeasurable,
the Son is immeasurable,
the Holy Spirit is immeasurable.
The Father is eternal,
the Son is eternal,
the Holy Spirit is eternal.
And yet there are not three eternal beings;
there is but one eternal being.
So too there are not three uncreated or immeasurable beings;
there is but one uncreated and immeasurable being.
Similarly, the Father is almighty,
the Son is almighty,
the Holy Spirit is almighty.
Yet there are not three almighty beings;
there is but one almighty being.
Thus the Father is God,
the Son is God,
the Holy Spirit is God.
Yet there are not three gods;
there is but one God.
Thus the Father is Lord,
the Son is Lord,
the Holy Spirit is Lord.
Yet there are not three lords;
there is but one Lord.
Just as Christian truth compels us
to confess each person individually
as both God and Lord,
so catholic religion forbids us
to say that there are three gods or lords.
The Father was neither made nor created nor begotten from anyone.
The Son was neither made nor created;
he was begotten from the Father alone.
The Holy Spirit was neither made nor created nor begotten;
he proceeds from the Father and the Son.
Accordingly there is one Father, not three fathers;
there is one Son, not three sons;
there is one Holy Spirit, not three holy spirits.
Nothing in this trinity is before or after,
nothing is greater or smaller;
in their entirety the three persons
are coeternal and coequal with each other.
So in everything, as was said earlier,
we must worship their trinity in their unity
and their unity in their trinity.
Anyone then who desires to be saved
should think thus about the trinity.
But it is necessary for eternal salvation
that one also believe in the incarnation
of our Lord Jesus Christ faithfully.
Now this is the true faith:
That we believe and confess
that our Lord Jesus Christ, God's Son,
is both God and human, equally.
He is God from the essence of the Father,
begotten before time;
and he is human from the essence of his mother,
born in time;
completely God, completely human,
with a rational soul and human flesh;
equal to the Father as regards divinity,
less than the Father as regards humanity.
Although he is God and human,
yet Christ is not two, but one.
He is one, however,
not by his divinity being turned into flesh,
but by God's taking humanity to himself.
He is one,
certainly not by the blending of his essence,
but by the unity of his person.
For just as one human is both rational soul and flesh,
so too the one Christ is both God and human.
He suffered for our salvation;
he descended to hell;
he arose from the dead;
he ascended to heaven;
he is seated at the Father's right hand;
from there he will come to judge the living and the dead.
At his coming all people will arise bodily
and give an accounting of their own deeds.
Those who have done good will enter eternal life,
and those who have done evil will enter eternal fire.
This is the catholic faith:
one cannot be saved without believing it firmly and faithfully.
This ecumenical creed(428 A.D.) is probably unknown to most Christians because it is seldom, if ever, used in worship services. It is probably not used because of its length. The Nicene Creed has eighteen printed lines, whereas the Athanasian has 69. It is difficult for congregations to use because of the creed's intricate and complex terms.
Though the creed carries the name of Athanasius, he did not write it. It was the product of the church of his time. The creed was named after him to honor him for his brave and forceful defense of the Trinity. Athanasius (289-373) was a bishop in Alexandria, Egypt.
The creed deals primarily with the Trinity and Jesus as the Son of God. At this time, the heresy of Arius was prominent. He taught that Jesus was not fully human or divine and that the Holy Spirit was not God but only a divine influence. The Athanasian Creed denounced these false teachings and upheld the doctrine of the Trinity. Luther's high regard for this creed was expressed: "I doubt, since the days of the Apostles, anything more important and more glorious has ever been written in the church of the New Testament."
22. You Are Accepted
Illustration
King Duncan
As Paul Tillich put it so eloquently: "Grace strikes us when we are in great pain and restlessness . . . It strikes us when our disgust for our own being, our weakness, our hostility, and our lack of direction and composure have become intolerable to us. It strikes us when, year after year, the longed for perfection of life does not appear, when the old compulsions reign with us as they have for decades . . . Sometimes at that moment a wave of light breaks into our darkness, and it is as though a voice were saying: " ‘You are accepted. . . .'"
We are accepted. Now we must accept others. The greatest need some people have is to be accepted. Acceptance changes lives. Let's you and I work together to make this house of worship known as a place where people can discover the acceptance of God and of the Christian community.
The full Tillich quote:Grace Strikes us when we are in great pain and restlessness. It strikes us when we walk through the dark valley of a meaningless and empty life. It strikes us when we feel that our separation is deeper than usual, because we have violated another life, a life which we loved, or from which we were estranged. It strikes us when our disgust for our own being, our indifference, our weakness, our hostility, and our lack of direction and composure have become intolerable to us. It strikes when, year after year, the longed-for perfection of life does not appear, when the old compulsions reign within us as they have for decades, when despair destroys all joy and courage. Sometimes at that moment a wave of light breaks into our darkness and it is as though a voice were saying: “You are accepted. You are accepted. Accepted by that which is greater than you and the name of which you do not know. Do not ask for the name now; perhaps you will find it later. Do not try to do anything now; perhaps later you will do much. Do not seekanything, do not perform anything, do not intend anything. Simply accept the fact that you are accepted. If that happens to us, we experience grace.
23. God's Marvelous Easter Chemistry
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
A workman of the great chemist Michael Faraday accidentally knocked a silver cup into a solution of acid. It was promptly dissolved, eaten up by the acid. The workman was terribly disturbed by the accident. The chemist came in and put a chemical into the jar, and shortly all the silver was precipitated to the bottom. The shapeless mass was lifted out and sent to the silversmith, and the cup was restored to its original shape. If a human genius can do a thing like this, why should we doubt that God can raise the dead?
24. From Darkness to Light
Illustration
Bill Wigmore
Sometime in the 5th century, when the Church decided to settle on a day to celebrate Christ’s birth, it’s interesting to see the date they chose. They chose the time of the year when the nights, at least in the Northern hemisphere are at their very longest & coldest. When the world is dark, and when everything in it is nearly frozen & dead. It's thenthat the words we hearfrom Isaiah the prophet make their most sense: The people who walked in darkness will see a great light; those who dwell in a land of deep darkness, on them a light will shine.
25. Faith in Jesus Christ
Illustration
Will Willimon
Princeton preacher James F. Kay puts it this way, "If the Gospel is good news, it is not because it predicts a bright, shiny future based on our morality or piety. The Gospel is neither a cocoon that insulates us from the sufferings of this present age nor a pair of ear plugs that shuts out the groaning of creation....The Gospel is Good News, not because it predicts a future based on our good behavior or other present trends; the Gospel is Good News because it promises a future based on God's faithfulness to Jesus Christ." (The Seasons of Grace, Eerdmann, 1995, p. 7).
26. Warmth, Warmth, More Warmth
Illustration
John Claypool
Johann Wolfgang Goethe was the last of the so-called universal human beings. I mean by that, he was one of the last of our western civilization to have gained the mastery of every academic discipline. In his long life, he became renowned as a poet, as an artist, as a musician, as a playwright and historian. There was hardly a single facet of human knowledge of which he did not have a tremendous grasp. As he lay dying in 1832, the story is that he suddenly sat up, bolted upright in bed, and cried out with great poignancy, "Light, light, more light." One of his biographers said that this was a fitting climax to this particular individual's life because his whole existence had been dedicated to learning more, to pushing back the parameters of darkness. He died as he lived, wanting to learn more.
Many decades later Miguel Unamuno, the great Spanish philosopher, was reading a biography of Goethe and when he came to the death-bed scene, he allegedly read out loud to his wife what I have just described. Then he closed the book and said very thoughtfully, "You know for all his brilliance, Goethe was mistaken. Instead of crying for light, light, more light, what he should have asked for was warmth, warmth, more warmth, for human beings do not die of the darkness; they die of the cold."
27. Our Task in the Darkness
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
At age twelve, Robert Louis Stevenson was looking out into the dark from his upstairs window watching a man light the streetlamps. Stevenson’s governess came into the room and asked what he was doing. He replied, "I am watching a man cut holes in the darkness."
This is a marvelous picture of what our task should be as sharers of God's light—people who are busy cutting holes in the spiritual darkness of our world.
28. Our Reflected Light
Illustration
Michael P. Green
The moon shines in the night sky because of reflected light from the sun. Without that reflected light, the moon would become lost in the darkness of space.
The believer in Christ shines only because of the reflection of Christ’s light. Without that reflected light, the believer becomes lost in the darkness of the world and sin.
29. Stumbling in the Dark
Illustration
Tony Damato
When my family and I went to Disney World, we went through the cave on Tom Sawyer’s Island. The darkness in this cave was so deep that there was nothing for your eyes to adjust to. As you walked you had to listen for the person in front of you so you wouldn’t bump into him. I did bump into the next person and so waited a while for him to go forward. And after a few minutes realized that he had moved on already and I had been waiting for so long for nothing. The light when you finally came out of the cave was welcome and brilliant.
But many people today are like a person walking in the darkness, stumbling along, bumping into things and afraid to step.
But we have a light to light our way and guide us. Psalm 119:105 says: “Thy word is a lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path.”
30. BE A DARKNESS DISPELLER
Illustration
John H. Krahn
As you got out of bed this morning, did you feel like you belonged to a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God? And tomorrow morning, as the daily grind begins again, will you be thinking as you brush the old ivories, "What ways am I going to declare God’s wonderful deeds today?" Will any of us plot how we might upset the devil, the prince of terrorists? How many of us will let the light of Christ shine through us and be among the darkness dispellers? Will any of us seek to be the light of Christ in a darkening world?
Reading the Bible, it becomes evident that Christianity is not a solo proposition. Christianity comes to us through Christian community. Without a relation to the community or church, our individual Christianity is weakened and incomplete. The church is Christ’s body on earth today. The light of Christ shines in the world through each of us as we take seriously that we are a chosen people belonging to God.
There is no disembodied Christianity. The Lord calls us to relate to him in the community of the church with all of its warts and imperfections. Christianity is a social faith, a community of fellow believers. Jesus continues to build his church upon our confession of faith that he was the one promised by the Father to die and pay the penalty of our sinfulness and to defeat death and the grave by rising again. No individual makes the church. Saint Paul speaks of members of the body of Christ; members mean absolutely nothing when they are severed from the body. Every functioning, contributing, participating member is important to the good of our witness.
Jesus Christ is the cornerstone of the church. We are each to be a living stone cemented to the cornerstone and to one another. Each of us has a divine destiny and a place in the drama of divine redemption. We have been baptized into a high vocation. We were once nobody’s people, destined to hell. We are now God’s people, called to serve the Lord, on our way to heaven. We have gone from rags to riches, from a pig sty to a royal palace.
We are God’s own people. We belong to God, saved from hell by the sacrifice of Christ. We are, therefore, called to produce - produce the light of Christ in our words and deeds. We are called by Christ to servanthood, to sacrifice, into ministry. Such ministry is fed and coordinated in the local parish. If each Christian took seriously the Lord’s Word, our ministry and effectiveness as darkness dispellers would double, perhaps even triple. With the help of God, let’s turn on our lights ... full strength.
31. When the Light Comes
Illustration
William G. Carter
There was a priest in a Midwestern city who wanted to help inner-city children. He wanted them to see something more than their own situations. He put them on a bus and took them to see some things of great beauty. They went to the art museum and saw paintings by the masters. They went to a symphony matinee and heard beautiful music. They went for a walk through a row of homes that were done over by a creative team of architects. That young priest showed those children the best and brightest things he knew. Then they climbed back on the bus and went home. That night one of those young boys set his apartment house on fire. They rescued the neighbors and family, but the place burned down. The priest was in tears when he visited the boy in a detention cell. "Why did you do it?" he asked.
"I saw all those beautiful things," said the boy, "and then I came home and saw how ugly my world was, and I hated the ugliness, so I wanted to burn it down." Shine some light in a dark place and there's no telling what will happen. When all you have ever seen is darkness, that is all you know. And when light comes, it makes for a contrast. Darkness remains a choice. In fact, it is possible for light to come into the world, and for somebody to say, "Turn out the lights!" It is possible for the Light of the world to shine on people, and those very people may not accept it.
32. Let the Lower Lights Be Burning
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Jesus stressed the positive effect we can have on others when he said, “Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father who is in heaven” (Matt. 5:16, rsv) But if sin dims our testimony so that our “light” is no longer visible, some of those we might have influenced for Christ may drift on in spiritual darkness.
On a dark and stormy night, with waves piling up like mountains on Lake Erie, a boat rocked and plunged near the Cleveland harbor. “Are we on course?” asked the captain, seeing only one beacon from the lighthouse. “Quite sure, sir,” replied the officer at the helm. “Where are the lower lights?” “Gone out, sir.” “Can we make the harbor?” “We must, or perish!” came the reply. With a steady hand and a stalwart heart, the officer headed the ship toward land.
But, in the darkness, he missed the channel and the vessel was dashed to pieces on the rocks. Many lives were lost in a watery grave. This incident moved Philip P. Bliss to write the familiar hymn, “Let the Lower Lights Be Burning.”
33. Never Ever Give Up!
Illustration
James W. Moore
One of the most beloved and colorful sports personalities of our time was a man named Jim Valvano-"Jimmy V," as sports fans around the country affectionately knew him. Valvano died on April 16, 1993, after a year-long battle with cancer. He was forty-seven years old. He will he remembered as a great basketball coach. His North Carolina State team won the national championship in 1983, upsetting that great Houston Cougar team that featured Hakeem Olajuwon and Clyde Drexler. Valvano also will he remembered as an outstanding TV analyst, an eloquent inspirational speaker, and a lovable, wisecracking humorist. But most of all, he will be remembered for the courageous way he faced a debilitating illness.
A few weeks before he died, Valvano was honored on national television, and to that vast viewing audience, he said this:
Today, I fight a different battle. You see, I have trouble walking and I have trouble standing for a long period of time. Cancer has taken away a lot of my physical abilities. Cancer is attacking and destroying my body. But what cancer cannot touch is my mind, my heart and my soul. I have faith in God and hope that things might get better for me. But even if they don't I promise you this. I will never ever give up. I will never ever quit. And if cancer gets me then I'll just try my best to go to heaven and I'll try my best to be the best coach they've ever seen up there. [Then, pointing to his 1983 Championship team, he said,] I learned a great lesson from these guys; they amazed me! They did things I wasn't sure they could do because they absolutely refused to give up! That was the theme of our championship season: "Never ever give up!" That's the lesson I learned from them and that's the message I leave with you: "Never give up. Never ever give up!"
34. THE MOST WONDERFUL GIFT
Illustration
John H. Krahn
One of the things that most young children fear are monsters. Unlike the imagined monsters of children, the early church had a real monster of its own. It was a most deadly enemy that roamed about. The monster was the notion that Christ alone was not adequate for a person’s salvation. And this monster gave birth to another monster, the monster of uncertainty over our own salvation. Both monsters were real - both were inspired by the devil. Unfortunately, they are still very much with us today. Many of us are puzzled and uncertain as to whether we will be saved. To solve the salvation puzzle we must kill the monster of uncertainty that suggests we trust in something other than Christ alone for our salvation.
Recently, I surveyed a large sample of our congregation. I was amazed to discover that so many were puzzled over the crucial question of their eternal life. Perhaps some of you reading this meditation do not feel certain that if you died tonight that you will be with God in heaven. Many who feel certain that they will go to heaven do not base such certainty on faith in Jesus Christ alone. The devil that roamed freely in the early church is still with us.
Brothers and sisters, our salvation is unreasonable, and this is what causes much of our puzzlement. We have been trained from childhood that we must work out our own problems and map out our own destiny. To think that God’s salvation is a pure gift, won for us by God’s actions and effected without any help or aid from us, militates against our, "pull yourself up by your own bootstraps" philosophy.
Second, it smacks us where we hurt the most, right in our pride. Adults are hesitant about accepting gifts which they know they have not earned or merited. We do not want to feel obligated to anyone. It is not an easy matter for us to come before Almighty God and accept what he wants to give us - the most wonderful gift of eternal life. It takes a humble person to make such a confession from his heart and to stand totally dependent on God.
Third, for most of us, everything that we have has a price tag on it. Then we are confronted with the strange news of a gospel which declares that God’s salvation is a free gift. Our experience with every other valuable gift causes us to stop and think, "Is that reasonable? There must be a hidden cost, a string attached, we must have to do something. How can God really give us something so wonderful for nothing?"
In the survey of our congregation we also asked our people, "If you were to die tonight and stand before God and he were to ask you, ‘Why should I let you into my heaven?’ what would you answer him?" What would you answer him? Take a second, think about it. Let me share with you some answers others gave: "I’ve lived a Christian life, loving and caring for my fellowman." "I am a good person and love to help others." "I’ve tried my best to do what you have expected of me." What is the common element in all these answers? It is "I." Everyone emphasizes what I have done.
The Bible says, "For by grace you have been saved through faith; and this is not your own doing, it is a gift of God, not because of works, lest any man should boast." Heaven is a most wonderful gift, it is not something earned or deserved, it is only received by faith. Our faith in Jesus Christ is the key that opens heaven to us.
35. Fully Awake
Illustration
J. Ellsworth Kalas
The glory of God comes to us when we are most "fully awake." A list of the half-dozen or more true geniuses of human history would surely include the name of Blaise Pascal the seventeenth-century French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. In his brief 39 years, he made scientific discoveries which are basic to a great amount of our most significant contemporary knowledge.
But with all his ability in logic and all his commitment to tough-minded scholarship, Pascal found hisgreatest personalassurance, not in sciencebutin faith. On the evening of Monday, November 23, 1654, he felt the reality of Jesus Christ in such an intense waythat it changed him. Sothat he would never forget that moment and forget his Lord he he wrote his feelings down on parchment and sewed it into the lining of his coat,which he wore for the rest ofhis life. Here is some of what he wrote:
God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob.
Not of the Philosophers and Scientists.
Certainty, Certainty, Feeling Joy, Peace.
God of Jesus Christ
May I not forget your words. Amen.
The words were found by his servant after his death nearly eight years later. For Pascal the greatest reality was not what he discovered in laboratory experiments, but what he found in his communion with God. It was at such a time that he was "fully awake."
Note: Here is the full writing as it appears on the parchment in his jacket:
Memorial
The year of grace 1654,
Monday, 23 November, feast of St. Clement, pope and martyr,
and others in the martyrology.
Vigil of St. Chrysogonus, martyr, and others.
From about half past ten at night until about half past midnight,
FIRE.
GOD of Abraham, GOD of Isaac, GOD of Jacob
not of the philosophers and of the learned.
Certitude. Certitude. Feeling. Joy. Peace.
GOD of Jesus Christ.
My God and your God.
Your GOD will be my God.
Forgetfulness of the world and of everything, except GOD.
He is only found by the ways taught in the Gospel.
Grandeur of the human soul.
Righteous Father, the world has not known you, but I have known you.
Joy, joy, joy, tears of joy.
I have departed from him:
They have forsaken me, the fount of living water.
My God, will you leave me?
Let me not be separated from him forever.
This is eternal life, that they know you, the one true God,
and the one that you sent, Jesus Christ.
Jesus Christ.
Jesus Christ.
I left him; I fled him, renounced, crucified.
Let me never be separated from him.
He is only kept securely by the ways taught in the Gospel:
Renunciation, total and sweet.
Complete submission to Jesus Christ and to my director.
Eternally in joy for a day’s exercise on the earth.
May I not forget your words. Amen.
36. Jesus Calls the Common Man
Illustration
Gary Inrig
In May 1855, an eighteen-year-old boy went to the deacons of the church in Boston. He had been raised in a Unitarian church, in almost total ignorance of the gospel, but when he had moved to Boston to make his fortune, he began to attend a Bible-preaching church. Then, in April of 1855, his Sunday school teacher had come into the store where he was working and simply and persuasively shared the Gospel and urged the young man to trust in the Lord Jesus. He did, and now he was applying to join the church. One fact quickly became obvious. This young man was almost totally ignorant of biblical truth. One of the deacons asked him, "Son, what has Christ done for us all - for you -which entitles him to our love?" His response was, "I don't know. I think Christ has done a great deal for us, but I don't think of anything in particular that I know of."
Hardly and impressive start. Years later his Sunday school teacher said of him: "I can truly say that I have seen few persons whose minds were spiritually darker than was his when he came into my Sunday school class. I think the committee of the church seldom met an applicant for membership who seemed more unlikely ever to become a Christian of clear and decided views of gospel truth, still less to fill any space of public or extended usefulness." Nothing happened very quickly to change their minds. The deacons decided to put him on a year-long instruction program to teach him basic Christian truths. Perhaps they wanted to work on some of his other rough spots as well. Not only was he ignorant of spiritual truths, he was only barely literate, and his spoken grammar was atrocious. The year-long probation did not help very much. At his second interview, there was only a minimal improvement in the quality of his answers, but since it was obvious that he was a sincere and committed (if ignorant) Christian, they accepted him as a church member.
Over the nextyears, I am sure that many people looked at that young man and, convinced that God would never use a person like that, they wrote off Dwight L. Moody. But God did not. By God's infinite grace and persevering love, D. L. Moody was transformed into one of the most effective servants of God in church history, a man whose impact is still with us.
37. Sharing the Suffering
Illustration
J.D. Morris
Nowhere in the N.T. do any of the Greek words translated "fellowship" imply fun times. Rather, they talk of:
- The fellowship of the ministering to the saints(II Corinthians 8:4).
- Sacrificial service and financial aid(See for example, I Timothy 6:18).
- The fellowship in the gospel(Philippians 1:5),
- The defense and confirmation of the gospel, we all are partakers (same word as fellowship) of grace(Philippians 1:7).
- Bringingpersecution:We are to emulate Christ's humility and self-sacrificial love (Philippians 2:5-8).
- A fellowship of the Spirit(Phil 2:1).
- Knowing the fellowship of His sufferings, being made conformable unto His death(Philippians 3:10).
- Communion (i.e. fellowship) of the blood...and body of Christ(I Corinthians 10:16).
38. All That Is Required
Illustration
Sarah Jackson Shelton
Kenneth Fearing, the poet, describes a particularly long and wearisome day in one woman's life. (William Dols,Just Because It Didn't Happen...,"I Say to You, 'Arise!'") Evening finally comes. The house is quiet at last. The children have been tucked into bed and are asleep. She sits in the family room with her husband and they lose themselves in the blur of the images on the television. They talk a little, but not enough. They try to make time pass with a drink. Then the eleven o'clock news is over, and she says she will go up to bed. She asks, "Are you coming soon?" He replies with, "In a minute." But as she heads toward the stairs, she hears him switch the channel to a late show and she knows that it will be another hour or so of watching, and she will drop off to sleep alone again. As she climbs the stairs in the dark, she does a silly thing that she did as a child when she was afraid. She counts the number of steps. And, then, not really wanting to and wishing that she had not, she asks herself:Did you sometime or somewhere have a different idea? She pauses for an instant. Should she go upstairs alone or return downstairs alone? And the reality of her soul's death causes her to wonder for the first time in her life:Is this what I was born to feel and to do and to be?
It is at these moments that the power of the gospel has opportunity to shine. Robert Capon has said, "Jesus came to raise the dead. The only qualification for the gift of the Gospel is to be dead. You do not have to be smart. You do not have to be good. You do not have to be wise. You do not have to be wonderful. You do not have to be anything...you just have to be dead. That's it."
39. Two Kinds of Life and Death
Illustration
John R. Brokhoff
Two Kinds of Life:The Greeks had two words for "life" and both appear in the New Testament. One is bios from which we get "biology." It refers to biological and physical life. It is not true life but mere existence. This is life in terms of quantity and extension. Methuselah, the oldest man in the Bible, had this kind of life. He lived 969 years, but there is no record of any contribution he made to the welfare of society.
The other Greek word is zoe. It is used to denote true life, the quality of life. It is spiritual life with God as the source of life. While bios is temporal, zoe is eternal. The one deals with the body and the other with the soul. But this eternal life also has quantity, for it extends through eternity. To distinguish this type of life from the former, the New Testament uses "eternal life."
Two Kinds of Death: As there are two kinds of life, there are two kinds of death. The bios type of life ends in physical death. The body declines, deteriorates, and dies. This is in accord with the natural order, for all living things die, including hom*o sapiens. If a human were only a physical body, the person would come to an end. In this case, death has the last word and is the ultimate victor over life.
There is another kind of death. The Bible speaks of death in terms of separation from God. "The soul that sins shall die" (Ezekiel 18:4). Sin is the dreadful agent that separates us from God. To be apart from God, from life, love, joy, and peace, is to be dead. Does this mean that the soul is exterminated or extinguished? If so, there would be a merciful nothingness. However, the Bible teaches that a soul apart from God, living in death, is in hell, a state of misery. Paul describes the condition in hell: "They shall suffer the punishment of eternal destruction and exclusion from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might" (2 Thessalonians 1:9). As there is eternal life, there is also everlasting death. It is to save us from this fate that God gave his Son to die for us and to reinstate us with God in whom we have eternal life. The scriptures repeatedly assure us that God does not want a single soul to perish or to be lost or to go to hell. In Christ, God the Father gave his very self to prevent people from going to everlasting death.
40. Eternal Punishment
Illustration
James Packer
We are told in the parable of the sheep and goats (Matt. 25:31-46) that those whom the judge rejects go away into Kolasis (punishment) aionios (a final state). The phrase is balanced by the reference to zoe aionios (eternal life) which is also a fixed and final state. Even if this word aionios is believed to mean only "belonging to the coming aion", and not to imply endlessness in the sense of perpetual continuity, the thought of endlessness is certainly bound up in the phrase "eternal life," and can hardly therefore be excluded from the corresponding and balancing phrase "eternal punishment." The idea that in this text aionios as applied to kolasis must imply everlastingness seems to be unbreakable.
The New testament always conceives of this eternal punishment as consisting of an agonizing knowledge of one's own ill desert, of God's displeasure, of the good that one has lost, and of the irrevocable fixed state in which one now finds oneself. The doctrine of eternal punishment was taught in the synagogue even before our Lord took it up and enforced it in the Gospels. All the language that strikes terror into our hearts weeping and gnashing of teeth, outer darkness, the worm, the fire, gehenna, the great gulf fixed is all directly taken from our Lord's teaching. It is from Jesus Christ that we learn the doctrine of eternal punishment.
Study the following Bible passages and any other relevant ones on this topic, and reach your own conclusions, prayerfully: Luke 16:26; John 3:18-19, 36; 5:29; 12:32; Acts 3:21,23; Rom. 1:16, 5:18-21; 1 Cor. 15:25-28; 2 Cor. 5:10, 19; 6:2; Gal. 1:4; Eph. 5:25; Phil. 2:9-11; 1 Tim. 2:4; Titus 2:11; Heb. 2:9; 9:27; 1 Pet. 3:19; 2 Pet 3:9; 1 John 1:5; 2:2; 4:8.
41. The Gospel of the Second Chance
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
On New Year's Day, 1929, Georgia Tech played University of California in the Rose Bowl. In that game a man named Roy Riegels recovered a fumble for California. Somehow, he became confused and started running in the wrong direction. One of his teammates, Benny Lorn, overtook and downed him sixty-five yards away, just before he scored for the opposing team. When California attempted to punt, Tech blocked the kick and scored a safety, which was the ultimate margin of victory.
That strange play came in the first half, and everyone who was watching the game was asking the same question: "What will Coach Nibbs Price do with Roy Riegels in the second half?" The men filed off the field and went into the dressing room. They sat down on the benches and on the floor, all but Riegels. He put his blanket around his shoulders, sat down in a corner, put his face in his hands, and cried like a baby.
If you have played football, you know that a coach usually has a great deal to say to his team during halftime. That day Coach Price was quiet. No doubt he was trying to decide what to do with Riegels. Then the timekeeper came in and announced that there were three minutes before playing time. Coach Price looked at the team and said simply, "Men, the same team that played the first half will start the second."
The players got up and started out, all but Riegels. He did not budge. The coach looked back and called to him. Still he didn't move. Coach Price went over to where Riegels sat and said, "Roy, didn't you hear me? The same team that played the first half will start the second."
Then Roy Riegels looked up and his cheeks were wet with a strong man's tears. "Coach," he said, "I can't do it to save my life. I've ruined you. I've ruined the University of California. I've ruined myself. I couldn't face that crowd in the stadium to save my life."
Then Coach Price reached out and put his hand on Riegels' shoulder and said to him: "Roy, get up and go on back; the game is only half over." And Roy Riegels went back. Those Tech men will tell you they have never seen a man play football as Roy Riegels played that second half.
We take the ball and run in the wrong direction. We stumble and fall and are so ashamed of ourselves that we never want to try again. And God comes to us and bends over us in the person of His Son and says, "Get up and go on back; the game is only half over." That is the gospel of the grace of God. It is the gospel of a second chance, of a third chance, of the hundredth chance.
42. God's Instant Recipe
Illustration
Instant cake mix at first was a big flop. The instructions said all you had to do was add water and bake. The company couldn't understand why it didn't sell until their research discovered that the buying public felt uneasy about a mix that required only water. Apparently people thought it was too easy. So the company altered the formula and changed the directions to call for adding an egg to the mix in addition to the water. The idea worked and sales jumped dramatically.
That's how some people react to the plan of salvation. To them it sounds too easy and simple to be true, even though the Bible says, "By grace you have been saved through faith...; it is the gift of God, not of works" (Eph. 2:8-9). They feel that there is something more they must do, something they must add to God's "recipe" for salvation. They think they must perform good works to gain God's favor and earn eternal life. But the Bible is clear we are saved, "not by works of righteousness which we have done, but according to His mercy" (Titus 3:5). Unlike the cake-mix manufacturer, God has not changed His "formula" to make salvation more marketable. The gospel we proclaim must be free of works, even though it may sound too easy.
43. Your Life Is Required of You in the Hymns
Illustration
Richard Patt
Many of the hymns of Christianity stir in us a regard to the urgency of our eternal salvation. "Delay not, delay not, O sinner draw near ... delay not, delay not, the hour is at hand." The Advent hymns breathe the urgency too: "Prepare the royal highway; the King of kings is near! Let every hill and valley a level road appear!"
Or how about the old Gospel hymn:
Softly and tenderly Jesus is calling,
calling for you and for me;
Time is now fleeting,
the moments are passing,
passing for you and for me.
There are spiritual urgencies concerning our salvation that we need to tend to!
Harry Emerson Fosdick stated the urgency long ago in a verse of his hymn, "God Of Grace And God Of Glory." He writes:
Rich in things and poor in soul:
Grant us wisdom, grant us courage
lest we miss your kingdom's goal;
lest we miss your kingdom's goal.
44. Dealing With Life's Setbacks
Illustration
Johnny Fulton was run over by a car at the age of three. He suffered crushed hips, broken ribs, a fractured skull, and compound fractures in his legs. It did not look as if he would live. But he would not give up. In fact, he later ran the half-mile in less than two minutes.
Walt Davis was totally paralyzed by polio when he was nine years old, but he did not give up. He became the Olympic high jump champion in 1952.
Shelly Mann was paralyzed by polio when she was five years old, but she would not give up. She eventually claimed eight different swimming records for the U.S. and won a gold medal at the 1956 Olympics in Melbourne, Australia.
In 1938, Karoly Takacs, a member of Hungary's world-champion pistol shooting team and sergeant in the army, lost his right hand when a grenade he was holding exploded. But Takacs did not give. up. He learned to shoot left-handed and won gold medals in the 1948 and 1952 Olympics.
Lou Gehrig was such a clumsy ball player that the boys in his neighborhood would not let him play on their team. But he was committed. He did not give up. Eventually, his name was entered into baseball's Hall of Fame.
Woodrow Wilson could not read until he was ten years old. But he was a committed person. He became the twenty-eighth President of the United States.
45. Free! Free! Free!
Illustration
Gerald Whetstone
They say that when the slaves in Jamaica knew they were to be set free on a certain day, they spent all night getting ready. While it was yet dark they began moving by twos and threes out of their huts into village lanes, joined by others coming from the forests and the plains. They streamed toward the highest hill, climbing through the darkness and crowding together at the top, waiting for the day. As the first strands of dawn began to show on the horizon, a ripple of laughter spread through the crowd like a murmur of waves. Then a shout went up and they began to sing in their distinctive rhythm, at last lifting up their hands into the sky at the rising of the sun and crying, "Free! Free! Free!"
However your life has been, don't let it be unchanged by this amazing gospel. Let your wary or weary heart take in the freedom of this powerful story. This story has the power to enable us to break free from all that would entomb us -- all the bonds, the limitations, the yesterday pain. And this gospel -- by God's grace -- gives us the courage to venture out to meet our Lord in our own life's tomorrow -- a tomorrow which is not fully here but is real, visible, already broken onto our horizon. Now we venture into the life we most profoundly longed for, not the life we've settled for. Not the keeping on that passes for life, but rather the life for which we have hungered and hoped, the life God intended for us.
46. Your Life Is Required of You in the Hymns
Illustration
Richard Patt
Many of the hymns of Christianity stir in us a regard to the urgency of our eternal salvation. "Delay not, delay not, O sinner draw near ... delay not, delay not, the hour is at hand." The Advent hymns breathe the urgency too: "Prepare the royal highway; the King of kings is near! Let every hill and valley a level road appear!"
Or how about the old Gospel hymn: Softly and tenderly Jesus is calling, calling for you and for me; Time is now fleeting, the moments are passing, passing for you and for me. There are spiritual urgencies concerning our salvation that we need to tend to!
Harry Emerson Fosdick stated the urgency long ago in a verse of his hymn, "God Of Grace and God Of Glory." He writes: Rich in things and poor in soul: Grant us wisdom, grant us courage lest we miss your kingdom's goal; lest we miss your kingdom's goal.
47. Listen for the Questions
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
The Scriptures include a significant number of life-and-death questions about meaning, purpose and value in life. Consider some of the questions posed by Scripture:
- What will it profit us if we gain the whole world but forfeit our life? (Matthew 16:26)
- Who do you say that I am? (Matthew 16:15)
- What are you looking for? (John 1:38)
- Who is my neighbor? (Like 10:29)
- What must I do to inherit eternal life? (Mark 10:17)
- Who can separate us from the love of Christ? (Romans 8:35)
- Are you able to drink the cup that I drink, or be baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with? (Mark 10:38)
- Which commandment is the first of all? (Mark 12:28)
- Where can I go from your Spirit? (Psalm 139:7).
- What is this new teaching, with authority? (Mark 1:27)
- Who is this about whom I hear such things? (Luke 9:9)
- What is truth? (John 18:38)
And this morning's Gospel lesson ends with the question, "Who then is this, that even the wind and the sea obey him?" Who is this Jesus, the one who speaks with a new level of authority, the one who is able to bring calm into the storms of life, the one who comes among us as prince of peace, suffering servant, fount of compassion and grace?
48. A Little Substitute
Illustration
Staff
True habits of the heart are there when they are most needed. According to a Self Magazine article years ago, losing just one dietary bad habit can result in significant weight loss over a period of one year. If you just substitute high calorie offenders for similar tasting, lower calorie choices, the weight loss can still be significant. Give up one teaspoon of cream in your coffee and lose 6 pounds a year, or switch to a similar amount of skim milk and lose 5 pounds. Give up a glazed donut a day and lose 25 pounds a year, or switch to a medium sized bran muffin and lose 11 pounds in a year. Skipping a teaspoon of butter on a daily bagel will leave you 11 pounds lighter at year's end, or change to a similar amount of cream cheese and drop 5 pounds. Some other items you can drop and save on are a 12 ounce can of soda a day and forget 17 pounds in a year; a 1.2 ounce chocolate bar a day saves you 12 pounds in 18 months. There's nothing to it but to do it.
49. Trouble of the Heart
Illustration
Phil Newton
Every believer faces trouble. It is part of life itself. As long as we are in this world, we will face trouble, saint and sinner alike. J.C. Ryle (Expository Thoughts on John's Gospel) calls the words of Christ in our text, "A precious remedy against an old disease." The disease, of course, is trouble. He goes on to describe it:
That disease is trouble of heart. That remedy is faith. Heart trouble is the commonest thing in the world. No rank or class or condition is exempt from it. No bars or bolts or locks can keep it out. Partly from inward causes and partly from outward, partly from the body and partly from the mind, partly from what we love and partly from what we fear, the journey of life is full of trouble. Even the best of Christians have many bitter cups to drink between grace and glory. Even the holiest saints find the world a vale of tears.
50. How The Mighty Have Fallen!
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
"How the mighty have fallen." King David of old once spoke those words concerning the death of King Saul. "How the mighty have fallen." These words have transcended the Bible and become the language of popular culture. A newspaper report a few years ago on some pastors who had fallen from grace used this biblical passage as its headline. The article was about two well-known television preachers -- Jimmy Swaggart and Jim Bakker -- whose sins had been publicly exposed. "How the mighty have fallen" the newspaper headline gloated! Jimmy Swaggart is an interesting case in point.
Newsweek magazine once carried an article that featured this highly talented preacher. The article quoted one man as saying that Jimmy Swaggart was one of the most entertaining people on television in any field. The man didn't believe what Swaggart preached but he was dazzled by his entertainment and communication skills. "How the mighty have fallen!" Swaggart's sin seemed to be his fascination with p*rnography. One who knew him well over the years said: "His weakness for p*rnography finally beat him. He's fasted and prayed many times to overcome this weakness." Swaggart's weakness for p*rnography often led him to Louisiana brothels. It doesn't appear to be the case that Swaggart had sex with these women. He just asked them to pose for him in some suggestive ways. One night as he was leaving a brothel, however, someone who was out to expose him took some pictures. The pictures undid him. Scandal raged. Swaggart faced his congregation with tears running down his cheeks and remorse in his heart.
The response to Swaggart's fall was highly judgmental. People judged Swaggart harshly because he had been so judgmental in his preaching. In his judgments he came down on all sorts and varieties of people, including Christian people. Of the ministry of Jim Bakker, for example, Swaggart had said: "He's a cancer on the body of Christ that needs to be excised." Swaggart's preaching was judgmental indeed.
Swaggart was also judged harshly because of the peculiar nature of his message. Swaggart's message went beyond the proclamation of Jesus Christ to be a message fundamentally about the holiness work of the Holy Spirit. He proclaimed over and over again that through the work of the Holy Spirit in our lives we can overcome all sin. Thus he judged sinners. He invited sinners to be filled with the Holy Spirit in order to overcome all sin. Victory over sin would belong to all those who did business with the Holy Spirit.
What are we to think of this promise in light of Swaggart's own dark side? It's no wonder that some people relished the chance to defrock Swaggart in public. The mighty had fallen indeed. Hopefully he learned something from his trials. A hint of wisdom is evident in some of the things he says. For example, he said reflecting on his experiences: "I have seen that the gospel is perfect but its messengers are not." Jimmy Swaggart could now identify with Peter, who began his ministry with these words: "Depart from me, for I am a sinful man, O Lord." Ministry always begins in confession!"
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- Greg Locke plans to move church amid longstanding community noise complaints
- This week in Christian history: John Sung dies, Evangelical Alliance formed, Diet of Odense
- Bishop IV Hilliard's Texas megachurch lists $15M mansion for sale
- Executive pastor resigns from Cross Timbers Church weeks after Josiah Anthony stepped down
- Wycliffe Bible Translators missionary died by suicide at Chicago airport, police say
- Actors Cameron & BJ Arnett on discipleship, spiritual accountability and ‘The Forge’
- Tim Tebow on battling spiritual warfare in fight against human trafficking: 'Overcome the world'
- Spanish judge halts assisted suicide of 23 year old after father's request
- Supreme Court stops Biden's Title IX rules allowing boys in girls' sports
- Montana Supreme Court rules parental notification for abortion law unconstitutional
- Bangladesh’s Religious Minorities Want Peace Amid Country’s Turmoil
- New Zealand Uncovers Historic Abuse in Church-Run Institutions
- Died: Timothy Dudley-Smith, Who Turned Metrical Poetry into Hundreds of Hymns
- After Pastor Led 400 to Starve, Some Kenyan Christians Open to Church Restrictions
- In Zimbabwe, Secular Education Is Overtaking Historic Mission Schools
- Philly Pastor: Church Parking Can Be a ‘Stumbling Block’ in the Bike Lane
- Died: Patricia Gundry, Evangelical Feminist Who Wanted Women to Be Free
- Some Churches Lose Coverage as Insurers Hit by a Wave of Storm Claims
- The Olympics’ Most Iconic Photo Has a Christian Message
- Died: Doris Brougham, Missionary Who Taught English to Taiwan
- Donald Trump's Easter Prayer Was a Mishap Without Teleprompter, "Something Something Heaven"
- Indian American Muslim group cancels parade participation amid float controversy
- J.D. Vance's Hat Trick of Election Recklessness: Insulting German-, Irish- & Italian-Americans
- 27 Atheist Musicians Who are Vocal About Not Believing
- Kim Kardashian's lookalike daughter Chicago steals the show in new family photo
- People Without Meaningful Lives Seek Power Over Others
- People Shared 50 Shocking Facts About Their Friends They Only Found Out Years Into The Friendship
- Australian News Corp exec apologises for doing Nazi salute
- MAGA has a Catholic gender gap problem — and it could spell trouble for Trump
- New York's India Day Parade will not remove controversial Hindu tribute
- Church of England Dropping Word 'Church' to be More 'Modern'
- Map Shows the Most Religious US States
- American Young Women Stop Attending Church
- A Quick Bible Study Vol. 230: Psalm Summer - Part 4
- The Atrocity Known as 'Catholics for Kamala'
- How a Persecuted Religious Group Grew Into a Global Movement
- Hagar and Ishmael as Main Characters
- Infant Loss Is Tragic and Complex. Abortion Bans Made it Worse
- On Inner Detachment
- It's Tu B'Av – Spread the Love, Yes Even this Year
